Introduction to Criminal Justice

Chapter 10: Institutional Corrections

Historically, institutional confinement has been used since ancient times, but not until the 1600s and 1700s as a major punishment for criminals.

Prior to that it was used to:◦ Detain people before trial.◦ Hold prisoners awaiting other sanctions.◦ Coerce payment of debts and fines.

European Background

Two forerunners of modern incarceration were:◦ Banishment

A punishment, originating in ancient times, that required offenders to leave the community and live elsewhere, commonly in the wilderness.

◦ Transportation A punishment in which offenders were transported

from their home nation to one of that nation’s colonies to work.

Forerunners of Modern Incarceration

The closest European forerunners of modern U.S. prisons were known as workhouses.◦ European forerunners of the modern U.S. prison,

where offenders were sent to learn discipline and regular work habits

Forerunners of Modern Incarceration

During the 1700s and 1800s, three reformers were important to initiatives in corrections:◦ Cesare Beccaria◦ John Howard◦ Jeremy Bentham

Reform Initiatives

Beccaria’s book On Crimes and Punishments (1764) argued for a system of detailed written laws describing the behaviors that constitute crime and the associated punishments.

Beccaria further argued that, to deter crime, the punishment should fit the crime in two ways:1. The severity of punishment should parallel the

severity of harm resulting from the crime.2. The punishment should be severe enough to

outweigh the pleasure obtainable from the crime.

Beccaria

Finally, Beccaria argued that, to deter crime, punishment needed to be certain and swift.

Certainty means that criminals think it is likely they will be caught and punished.

Swiftness implies the punishment will occur soon after commission of the crime.

Beccaria

John Howard’s 1777 book, The State of the Prisons in England and Wales, was based on his visits to penal institutions.

Appalled by the crowding, poor living conditions, and abusive practices, Howard advocated for:◦ Safe, humane, and orderly penal environments.◦ Religious teaching, hard work, and solitary

confinement as ways to instill discipline and reform inmates.

Howard

In penology, Jeremy Bentham is remembered for his idea that order and reform could be achieved in a prison through architectural design.

Bentham’s ideal prison was called a pantopicon.

Bentham

In 1790, the Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia was converted from a simple holding facility to a prison and is considered the nation’s first state prison.

Inmates labored in solitary cells and received large doses of religious training.

Penitentiary Movement

An early system of United States penology in which inmates were kept in solitary cells so that they could study religious writings, reflect on their misdeeds, and perform handicraft work.

Pennsylvania System

An early system of penology, originating at Auburn Penitentiary in New York, in which inmates worked and ate together in silence during the day and were placed in solitary cells for the evening.

Auburn System

The reformatory movement was based on principles adopted at the 1870 meeting of the National Prison Association.

The reformatory was designed:◦ for younger, less hardened offenders.◦ based on a military model of regimentation.◦ with indeterminate terms.◦ with parole or early release for favorable progress

in reformation.

Reformatory Movement

John Irwin summarized imprisonment in the 20th Century into three types of institutions:◦ The “big house” dominant for the first three

decades.◦ The “correctional institution” in the 1940s and

1950s.◦ The “contemporary violent prison” in the 1960s

and 1970s.

Twentieth Century Prisons

The “big house” was a walled prison with large cell blocks that contained stacks of three or more tiers of one- or two-man cells.

Often, the big house exploited inmate labor through various links to the free market.

The “correctional institution” was smaller and more modern looking.

During this time, a medical model came to be used. Inmates were subjected to psychological assessment

and diagnosis and received academic and vocational education and therapeutic counseling

Twentieth Century Prisons

One alternative to traditional confinement is the movement toward privatization.

Although the private sector has long been involved in programs such as food services, legal aid, and medical care, modern privatization entails private companies building and even running prisons.

Privatization

Such facilities are often designed for young, nonviolent offenders.

Although “boot camps” appeal to those who wish to convey a “tough on crime” message, they have not proven to affect recidivism rates.

Shock Incarceration

Total spending on state and federal prisons in fiscal year 2010 was budgeted at nearly $45 billion.

The average daily cost of incarceration per inmate in 2010 was $79.64 ($29,068.60 per inmate per year).

Cost Estimates

Americans have developed a tradition of strong reliance on the prison to control crime.

It has never done very well. Crime prevention programs fail, providing

more criminals for prisons. The increased prison population takes

resources away from effective community corrections and crime prevention programs.

The response to perceived high crime and high recidivism is to conclude that criminals are not being punished enough and to increase the use of imprisonment.

The Crowding Issue

Introduction to Criminal Justice

Chapter 10: Institutional Corrections

2009: 87% of prisoners in the United States are in state prisons;13% are in federal prisons.

The largest proportion of state prisoners are:◦ Male.◦ Black.◦ Have not completed high school.◦ Under age 35.◦ Have never married.◦ Were employed full-time prior to their arrest.◦ Had relatively low monthly incomes.

Prison Inmate Characteristics

In 2008, the prison population was characterized as follows:◦ 52% were serving sentences for violent offenses.◦ 18% for property offenses.◦ 18% for drug offenses.◦ The remainder for public order offenses.

Prison Inmate Characteristics

The federal prison population has some noticeable differences:◦ Higher percentage are white.◦ Somewhat older than state prison population.◦ More educated.◦ 51.4% are serving time for drug offenses.◦ Many are parents.

Prison Inmate Characteristics

Incarceration facilities exist at all three levels of government, and each jurisdiction operates with much autonomy.

However, the different levels are interconnected:◦ Federal requirements affect the operation of state

prisons.◦ Local jails are affected by federal and state

regulations.

Organization and Administration by Government

Each state has a department of corrections or a similar administrative body to coordinate the various adult prisons in the state.

Most adult prisons employ a quasi-military model of administration and management.

Organization and Administration by Government

Most prisoners are initially sent to a classification facility.◦ A facility to which newly sentenced offenders are taken

so that their security risks and needs can be assessed and they can be assigned to a permanent institution.

The decision of where to place an offender rests on a variety of factors:◦ The offender’s security risk.◦ Program services the offender needs, such as

counseling.◦ Any problems such as alcohol dependency.◦ The nature of the offense.

Classification and Other Special Facilities

Often distinguished by security level Maximum-security facilities are

characterized by very tight internal and external security, a high wall or razor-wire fencing, with armed-guard towers, electronic detectors, and external (perimeter) armed patrols are common.

Men’s Prisons

A recent development is the “ultramaximum” or “supermaximum-security” prison to house notorious offenders and problem inmates from other institutions.

These institutions utilize:◦ Total isolation of inmates.◦ Constant lockdowns.

Men’s Prisons

Medium-security institutions place fewer restrictions on inmate movement inside the facility.

Characteristics often include:◦ Dormitory or barracks-type living quarters.◦ No external security wall.◦ Barbed wire rather than razor wire.◦ Fences and towers that look less forbidding.

Men’s Prisons

Minimum-security prisons are smaller and more open.

They often house inmates who:◦ Have established records of good behavior.◦ Are nearing release.

Characteristics often include:◦ Dormitory or barracks living quarters.◦ No fences.◦ Some inmates may be permitted to leave during

the day to work or study.◦ Some inmates may be granted furloughs.

Men’s Prisons

Women make up about 7% of the prison population, but the incarceration rate for women has grown faster than the incarceration rate for men.

A greater proportion of women than men are serving sentences for property offenses and drug offenses.

Women are more likely to have dependent children and to be serving their first prison term.

Women’s Prisons

Suspects usually stay in a lockup for only 24 to 48 hours.

A suspect may later be transferred from the lockup to the jail.

Jails and Lockups

In practice, a jail serves a catchall function in criminal justice and corrections. Jails also:◦ Readmit probation, parole, and bail bond violators

and absconders.◦ Temporarily detain juveniles pending transfer to

juvenile authorities.◦ Hold mentally ill persons.◦ Hold individuals for the military.

Jail Functions

Hold individuals for protective custody. Hold individuals for contempt. Hold witnesses for the courts. Release convicted inmates to the

community upon completion of sentence. Transfer inmates to other authorities. House inmates for federal, state or other

authorities. Sometimes operate community-based

programs. Hold inmates sentenced to short terms.

Jail Functions

In many ways, an incarceration facility is like a miniature society, with its own security procedures for maintaining order and preserving the safety of inhabitants, as well as a variety of services and programs.

Institutional Security, Services, and Programs

An inmate’s custody level indicates the degree of precaution to be used when working with that inmate.

Inmates who are vulnerable to assault by other inmates may be designated for protective custody.

Inmates who represent a danger to other inmates or staff may be designated for administrative segregation.

Security and Inmate Discipline

Protective Custody◦ The segregation of inmates for their own safety.

Administrative Segregation◦ The keeping of inmates in secure isolation so that

they cannot harm others.

Security and Inmate Discipline

In order to maintain security, prisons routinely institute policies such as:◦ Daily counts of inmates to detect escapes.◦ Constantly monitoring inmates’ whereabouts.◦ Procedures for transporting inmates.◦ Searches of inmates’ clothing, bodies, and cells.◦ Monitoring mail and phone conversations.

Security and Inmate Discipline

Written rules and regulations are part of an institution’s formal bureaucratic structure.

Within that structure, there develops an unwritten, informal structure that is vital to the operation of a facility.

Most institutions have an elaborate snitch system.

Security and Inmate Discipline

Disciplinary measures vary widely from institution to institution, and staff typically have broad discretion in dealing with rule violations.

If staff members decide to file formal disciplinary reports, inmates face a disciplinary hearing and may have privileges restricted, be placed in solitary confinement, or experience other sanctions.

Security and Inmate Discipline

Introduction to Criminal Justice

Chapter 10: Institutional Corrections

Many of the human services and programs found in the free society are duplicated within prisons:◦ Food services.◦ Building maintenance and repair (often performed

by inmates).◦ Medical and dental services.◦ Mail and phone services.◦ Visitation.

Services and Programs

All institutions have special-needs populations, in particular:◦ Elderly inmates who require more medical

attention.◦ Inmates with mental disorders.◦ Inmates with HIV and AIDS.

Inmates with Special Needs

Inmates hoping to better themselves during their incarceration normally have the opportunity to participate in a number of rehabilitation programs.

Examples are:◦ Self-improvement programs.◦ Work programs.◦ Education and vocational training.◦ Counseling and therapy.

Inmate Rehabilitation Programs

In some institutions, all inmates who are physically able are required to work.

In other institutions, the inmates who work are those who choose to do so.

Examples of work performed include:◦ food services.◦ building maintenance.◦ laundry.◦ health care.◦ clerical services.◦ manufacturing.◦ agricultural.

Work Programs

Rehabilitation programs serve many functions within a prison:◦ Give inmates ways to occupy their time.◦ Help the institution achieve control over inmates.

Rehabilitation programs also have problems that hinder their ability to effect rehabilitation:◦ The prison workday is often short and interrupted.◦ There is often little concern for the quantity and

quality of work.◦ Some jobs lack a free-world counterpart.◦ Educational programs lack funding.

Programs in Perspective