CHAPTER 10

LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION

Learning Objectives

• What is the typical developmental course of language development?

Mastering Language

• Phonology: The sound system

• Morphology: Forming words from sounds

• Syntax: Grammar (sentences from words)

• Semantics: Meaning

• Pragmatics: Context appropriate use

• Nonverbal: Face, tone, gestures

Language Development

• Prelinguistic Abilities

– First sounds and feedback

– Vocalizations (6-8 weeks)

– Babbling (4-6 months)

– Home language sounds (8 months)

– Comprehension before production

– Joint attention

First Words

• First Year

– Holophrases: Single words

– Nonverbal information

– Intonation: Question, request, demand

– Nouns first (naming)

• 18 months: Vocabulary spurt of 30-50 words

• 24 months: 186 words

• Wide individual differences

Video: The Development of Language

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First Mistakes

• Two-Year-Olds

– Overextension: Too broad

– Underextension: Too narrow

– Overregularization: Applying rules

• “Foots” or “goed”

• Found in other languages

• Suggests an understanding of grammatical rules

Two-Year Olds

• Telegraphic Speech: Critical content only

– 2+ word utterances

• Functional Grammar

– Semantic relations expressed

– Context important

• Rules inferred from adult speech

• Age 2-5: Transformational grammar

– “Billy hit” versus “hit Billy”

Later Language Development

• First grade: 10,000 words

• Abstract terms by adolescence

• Metalinguistic awareness

• Adulthood

– Expanded vocabulary

– Refine pragmatics

Learning Objectives

• How do learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives explain the acquisition of language?

• Which explanation is best supported by research?

How Language Develops

• Learning Theory (Skinner)

– Accounts for phonology and semantics

– Cannot account for syntax or novelty

• Nativist: (Chomsky) Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

– Inborn mechanism

– Universality of stages and errors

– Genetic evidence from twin studies

• Interactionist perspective

Critical or Sensitive Period?

• Critical Period Argument

– Younger learn more easily: All languages

– Deaf children: Same timing, sequence

– Second language learners

• Sensitive Period

– Earlier is better

Learning Objectives

• What factors influence mastery motivation of infants?

• How is this related to later achievement?

Mastery Motivation

• Typical of infants

• Individual differences exist

• Parents Must Provide:

– Sensory stimulation

– Responsive environment

• Early Education: Not necessary

– Important for disadvantaged children

Learning Objectives

• What are the pros and cons of early education?

• What factors contribute to differences in levels of achievement motivation during childhood, and what can be done to foster achievement motivation?

Achievement Motivation by Age 7

• Mastery Orientation

– Success: internal, stable attribution (smart)

– Failure: external factors (hard test)

– Learning goals (to solve problem)

• Learned Helplessness

– Success: external attribution (luck)

– Failure: internal and stable (I’m dumb)

– Performance goals (I want to look good)

Contributions to Achievement Motivation

• Infancy

– Stimulating, responsive environment

– Independence and self-reliance

– Set high standards

– Parental involvement

• School Age

– De-emphasize grades

– Focus on learning

Learning Objectives

• What are the components of learning to read?

• Is there a most effective way to teaching reading?

• What distinguishes skilled and unskilled readers?

Learning to Read

• Alphabetic Principle

– Printed words related to sounds

– Phonological awareness: decoding

• Emergent Literacy

– Reading to preschoolers

– Repetitious reading and rhymes

– Questions

Skilled vs. Unskilled Readers

• Skilled Readers

– Understand the phonetic alphabet

– Eyes hit all the words

– Rely on phonology, not context to identify words

• Unskilled Readers

– Low levels of phonological awareness

– Eyes skip words and parts of words

Teaching Reading

• Phonics (Code Oriented)

– Analyze words for sounds

– Sound-letter correspondence

• Whole-Word Method (Look-Say)

– Read for meaning

• Research supports phonics

Learning Objective

• How does school affect children?

• What factors characterize effective schools?

Effective Schools

• Less Important Factors

– Increased resources (reasonable)

– Average class size (18-40)

– Ability grouping: no advantage found

• Factors that Matter

– Student aptitude

– Task-oriented classes; discipline enforced

– Parental involvement

Learning Objectives

• What changes in achievement motivation occur during adolescence?

• What factors contribute to these changes?

• How does science and math education in the United States compare to science and math education in other countries?

• What are the pros and cons of integrating work with school during adolescence?

The Adolescent in School

• Declining achievement and self-esteem

• Negative school attitudes

• Critical juncture: middle school

• Risk factors

– Minority group, mother’s educational level and mental health

– Stressful life events, family size, father absence

Why Achievement Drops

• Family characteristics

• Cognitive growth

• Negative Feedback

– Younger are praised for effort alone

• Peer pressures, which discourage academic achievement esp. low income minority peers

• Puberty

• Poor person-environment fit

Science and Math Education

• Cultural Differences: Asian vs. US students

• Asian: Higher scores

• Differences in Asian schools

– More time in school and on task

– More homework

– Committed parents

– Peers: high values and standards

– Belief in hard work and effort

Work and School

• Students working 20+ hours per week

– Lower GPA

– Disengaged and bored attitude

– Alienation and anxiety

• Other Findings

– Lower math and science achievement

– More likely to use alcohol and drugs

Learning objectives

• How does achievement motivation change during adulthood?

• How do literacy, illiteracy, and continued education affect adults’ lives?

The Adult

• Achievement Motivation Stable

– Affected by education, type of work, and family situations

• Literacy: 22% at 3rd grade level

– US has more high level and more low level

– Related to poverty

• Continuing Education

– 15 million aged 25+ enrolled in college