Chapter 12Chapter 12

The Stages of LearningThe Stages of Learning

Concept: Distinct performance and performer characteristics change during skill learning

IntroductionIntroduction

People progress through distinct stages People progress through distinct stages (phases) as they learn a motor skill (phases) as they learn a motor skill

–i.e, as they progress from being a beginner i.e, as they progress from being a beginner to being highly skilledto being highly skilled

Two models proposed to identify and describe Two models proposed to identify and describe the stages:the stages:

–Fitts and Posner three-stage modelFitts and Posner three-stage model –Gentile two-stage modelGentile two-stage model

The Fitts and PosnerThe Fitts and PosnerThree Stage ModelThree Stage Model

Fitts and Posner (1967) proposed motor skill Fitts and Posner (1967) proposed motor skill learning involved three stages learning involved three stages [[see Fig. 12-1see Fig. 12-1]]

–Cognitive stage:Cognitive stage: Beginner focuses on solving Beginner focuses on solving cognitively-oriented problemscognitively-oriented problems

–Associative stage:Associative stage: Person has learned to Person has learned to associate cues from the environment with required associate cues from the environment with required movements; works to refine performance to be movements; works to refine performance to be more consistentmore consistent

–Autonomous stage:Autonomous stage: Final stage where Final stage where performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of attention demanded)attention demanded)

Gentile’sGentile’sTwo Stage ModelTwo Stage Model

Gentile (1972, 1987, 2000) proposed motor Gentile (1972, 1987, 2000) proposed motor skill learning progress through two stages:skill learning progress through two stages:

1.1. Initial stageInitial stage –Learner works to achieve two goals:Learner works to achieve two goals:

1)1) Movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of Movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of success achieving action goalsuccess achieving action goal

2)2) Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in environmental contextregulatory conditions in environmental context

Gentile’sGentile’sTwo Stage Model, cont’dTwo Stage Model, cont’d

2.2. Later stagesLater stages –Involves learner acquiring three Involves learner acquiring three

characteristics:characteristics:1)1) Adapting movement pattern acquired in Initial Adapting movement pattern acquired in Initial

stage to demands of any performance situationstage to demands of any performance situation

2)2) Increase consistency of action goal achievementIncrease consistency of action goal achievement

3)3) Perform with an economy of effortPerform with an economy of effort

Gentile’sGentile’sTwo Stage Model, cont’dTwo Stage Model, cont’dUnique feature of Gentile’s “Later stages”Unique feature of Gentile’s “Later stages”

–Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of skill being learnedskill being learned

–Closed skills require Closed skills require fixation fixation ofof movement movement patternpattern

Refine Initial stage movement pattern to consistently Refine Initial stage movement pattern to consistently repeat optimal movement pattern to achieve action goalrepeat optimal movement pattern to achieve action goal

–Open skills require diversification ofOpen skills require diversification of movement movement patternpattern

Refine Initial stage movement pattern to enable Refine Initial stage movement pattern to enable adaptation to changing environmental conditionsadaptation to changing environmental conditions

Performer and Performance Changes Performer and Performance Changes Across the Stages of LearningAcross the Stages of Learning

Stages of learning models describe distinct Stages of learning models describe distinct characteristics at each learning stage that characteristics at each learning stage that change across the stageschange across the stages

–Observable changes are noted for both the Observable changes are noted for both the person and the skill performanceperson and the skill performance

We will overview a few characteristicsWe will overview a few characteristicsBenefits of considering these characteristics:Benefits of considering these characteristics:

–Provides a closer look at the skill learning Provides a closer look at the skill learning processprocess

–Establishes why we need to develop different Establishes why we need to develop different instruction strategies for people in different learning instruction strategies for people in different learning stagesstages

Performer and Performance Changes Performer and Performance Changes Across the Stages of Learning, cont’dAcross the Stages of Learning, cont’d

Changes in rate of improvementChanges in rate of improvement

Changes in movement coordinationChanges in movement coordination

Changes in altering an old or Changes in altering an old or preferred coordination patternpreferred coordination pattern

Changes in muscles used to perform Changes in muscles used to perform the skillthe skill

Changes in energy costChanges in energy cost

Performer and Performance Changes Performer and Performance Changes Across the Stages of Learning, cont’dAcross the Stages of Learning, cont’d

Changes in achieving the kinematic Changes in achieving the kinematic goals of the skillgoals of the skill

Changes in visual selective attentionChanges in visual selective attention

Changes in conscious attention with Changes in conscious attention with performing a skillperforming a skill

Changes in error detection and Changes in error detection and correction capabilitycorrection capability

Changes in brain activityChanges in brain activity

A Performer Characteristics that A Performer Characteristics that Does Not Change Across the Does Not Change Across the

Stages of LearningStages of LearningPractice specificity hypothesisPractice specificity hypothesis

–Learning is specific to the sources of sensory information Learning is specific to the sources of sensory information available during practiceavailable during practice

When we use visual feedback during practice in the first When we use visual feedback during practice in the first stage of learning,stage of learning,

–We continue to need this feedback, even after we become We continue to need this feedback, even after we become more skillful with additional practicemore skillful with additional practice

Proteau (1998) hypothesized and provided evidence Proteau (1998) hypothesized and provided evidence that a dependency on the sensory feedback develops that a dependency on the sensory feedback develops because it becomes a part of the memory because it becomes a part of the memory representation of the skillrepresentation of the skill

ExpertiseExpertise

An “expert” – A person who is located at An “expert” – A person who is located at the extreme right end of the learning the extreme right end of the learning stages continuumstages continuumExperts in all skill performance areas Experts in all skill performance areas have in common some distinct have in common some distinct characteristics, characteristics, e.ge.g. – . –

–Amount and type of practice that resulted in Amount and type of practice that resulted in expertiseexpertise

–Knowledge structureKnowledge structure–Use of visionUse of vision

Predicting Future AchievementPredicting Future Achievement

Two of several approaches researchers Two of several approaches researchers have used to determine if performance have used to determine if performance in the initial learning stage predicts in the initial learning stage predicts performance in later stages:performance in later stages:1.1. Correlating initial and later performanceCorrelating initial and later performance

2.2. Intertrial correlationsIntertrial correlations