Chapter 13Chapter 13

Reformation & Religious Reformation & Religious Warfare in the 16Warfare in the 16thth Century Century

Christian (Northern) Renaissance HumanismChristian (Northern) Renaissance Humanism

Luther’s reform efforts were not the firstLuther’s reform efforts were not the first2nd half of the fifteenth century saw the spread of 2nd half of the fifteenth century saw the spread of humanist ideas to northern Europehumanist ideas to northern Europe– goal: to reform Christianitygoal: to reform Christianity– studied the classics like Italian humanistsstudied the classics like Italian humanists

but focused on sources of early Christianitybut focused on sources of early Christianity– discovered a simple religion, distorted by theological discovered a simple religion, distorted by theological

arguments of Middle Agesarguments of Middle Ages

like the Italians, C.H. believed education was keylike the Italians, C.H. believed education was key– C.H. believed that to change society, must change the people C.H. believed that to change society, must change the people

in itin it– some believed C.H. naïve, but really just optimisticsome believed C.H. naïve, but really just optimistic– Reformation turmoil shattered the optimismReformation turmoil shattered the optimism

works of Desiderius Erasmus & Thomas More illustrateworks of Desiderius Erasmus & Thomas More illustrate

Desiderius ErasmusDesiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) (1466-1536)

born in Holland, traveled Europe, usually conversed in Latinborn in Holland, traveled Europe, usually conversed in Latinreferred to his concept of religion as “philosophy of Christ”referred to his concept of religion as “philosophy of Christ”– religion should be guiding philosophy for daily life not rituals & practices religion should be guiding philosophy for daily life not rituals & practices

that the church stressedthat the church stressed

to understand simplicity of early church, people had to understand to understand simplicity of early church, people had to understand early scriptureearly scripture– believed that standard Latin edition of Bible had translation errorsbelieved that standard Latin edition of Bible had translation errors– found oldest Greek manuscripts of N.T.; translated them into Latin (1516)found oldest Greek manuscripts of N.T.; translated them into Latin (1516)

his concept of reform was:his concept of reform was:– better understanding of the philosophy of Jesusbetter understanding of the philosophy of Jesus– Making commonsense criticism of abuses in the churchMaking commonsense criticism of abuses in the church

The Praise of FollyThe Praise of Folly (1511) p.349 (1511) p.349– especially hard on abuse within the clergyespecially hard on abuse within the clergy

Work helped prepare way for ReformationWork helped prepare way for Reformation– ““Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.”Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.”– Erasmus disapproved of Luther & other Protestants’ tacticsErasmus disapproved of Luther & other Protestants’ tactics– No intention of destroying the unity of the Church, only wanted reformNo intention of destroying the unity of the Church, only wanted reform

Thomas MoreThomas More (1478-1535) (1478-1535)classically educatedclassically educatedbelieved, like civic humanists, that his education should be put to use believed, like civic humanists, that his education should be put to use to benefit the stateto benefit the state– embarked on political career where he became lord chancellor of embarked on political career where he became lord chancellor of

EnglandEnglandacquainted with many English humanistsacquainted with many English humanists– became very close friend of Erasmusbecame very close friend of Erasmus– translated many Greek manuscripts and wrote prose & poetry in translated many Greek manuscripts and wrote prose & poetry in

LatinLatinMost famous work, Most famous work, UtopiaUtopia (1516) (1516)– account of idealistic life on the imaginary island of Utopiaaccount of idealistic life on the imaginary island of Utopia– shows concerns w/ economic, political, & social problems of his shows concerns w/ economic, political, & social problems of his

dayday– cooperation & reason replaced power & fame as motivation in cooperation & reason replaced power & fame as motivation in

societysociety– orderly world where social relations, travel & recreation were orderly world where social relations, travel & recreation were

carefully controlled by the state for moral welfare of societycarefully controlled by the state for moral welfare of societydevotion to Catholic church was more important to devotion to the king devotion to Catholic church was more important to devotion to the king willingly gave up his life in opposition to his former friend’s (Henry VIII) willingly gave up his life in opposition to his former friend’s (Henry VIII) break from the Catholic church over his divorce break from the Catholic church over his divorce

Church & Religion on Eve of ReformationChurch & Religion on Eve of Reformationcorruption factor that spurred desire for reformcorruption factor that spurred desire for reformRenaissance popes failed to provide spiritual leadershipRenaissance popes failed to provide spiritual leadership– highest church positions often occupied by nobles or wealthy highest church positions often occupied by nobles or wealthy

bourgeoisiebourgeoisie

to increase individual revenue, officials often took more to increase individual revenue, officials often took more than one positionthan one position– referred to as referred to as pluralismpluralism– led to absenteeism (officials ignored duties)led to absenteeism (officials ignored duties)

while leaders failed to meet responsibilities, people while leaders failed to meet responsibilities, people sought certainty of salvationsought certainty of salvation– led to sell of led to sell of indulgencesindulgences to reduce time spent in Purgatory to reduce time spent in Purgatory

after deathafter death– indulgenceindulgence – remission after death of all or part of punishment – remission after death of all or part of punishment

for sinsfor sins

religious life deepened & people found their worldly religious life deepened & people found their worldly church leaders little help in search for salvationchurch leaders little help in search for salvation

Martin Luther & the Reformation in GermanyMartin Luther & the Reformation in GermanyMartin LutherMartin Luther (1483-1546) (1483-1546)

enrolled at U. of Erfurt at 17 (1501)enrolled at U. of Erfurt at 17 (1501)– Bachelor’s Degree (1502)Bachelor’s Degree (1502)– Master’s Degree in liberal arts (1505)Master’s Degree in liberal arts (1505)– entered & quickly left law school (1505)entered & quickly left law school (1505)

entered the Augustinian monastic order (1505)entered the Augustinian monastic order (1505)– assigned to U. of Wittenberg to lecture (1508)assigned to U. of Wittenberg to lecture (1508)– Bachelor’s degree in theology (1509)Bachelor’s degree in theology (1509)– received doctorate (1512) & assumed dept. chair of biblical theologyreceived doctorate (1512) & assumed dept. chair of biblical theology

Luther had serious problem w/ sacrament of confessionLuther had serious problem w/ sacrament of confession– spent hours a day confessing sins, only to return the next day and repeatspent hours a day confessing sins, only to return the next day and repeat

1513-1516: studied the Bible & found the answer to his problem w/ 1513-1516: studied the Bible & found the answer to his problem w/ confessionconfession– Paul’s Epistle to RomansPaul’s Epistle to Romans– his interpretation: people are not saved by doing good deeds & confessing his interpretation: people are not saved by doing good deeds & confessing

sins; people are saved by their faith in the promises of Godsins; people are saved by their faith in the promises of God– known as known as Justification by FaithJustification by Faith– Justification by Faith & the Bible as the sole authority in religious affairs Justification by Faith & the Bible as the sole authority in religious affairs

became pillars of Protestant Reformationbecame pillars of Protestant Reformation

1517 – Leo X issued an indulgence to finance construction of 1517 – Leo X issued an indulgence to finance construction of St. Peter’s BasilicaSt. Peter’s Basilica

Luther was distressed by the sale of indulgencesLuther was distressed by the sale of indulgences

wrote the wrote the Ninety-Five ThesesNinety-Five Theses as a result as a result

– attacked the abuses of the church through indulgencesattacked the abuses of the church through indulgences

– Leo X did not take Luther seriously, 95 Theses printed by Leo X did not take Luther seriously, 95 Theses printed by 1000s, support for his cause grows in Germany1000s, support for his cause grows in Germany

publicly disowned the Church in 1520publicly disowned the Church in 1520

excommunicated, became an enemy of the H.R.E. in 1521excommunicated, became an enemy of the H.R.E. in 1521

began organizing a reformed church in Wittenberg after began organizing a reformed church in Wittenberg after coming out of hiding 1522coming out of hiding 1522

– faced dissention in his ranks from radicalsfaced dissention in his ranks from radicals

– abandoned by earlier Christian humanists by 1525abandoned by earlier Christian humanists by 1525

Peasant’s WarPeasant’s War (1524-25) p.353-54 (1524-25) p.353-54

– Luther’s support of German princes’ authority made him Luther’s support of German princes’ authority made him less popular w/ peasantryless popular w/ peasantry

rejected all but 2 Catholic sacramentsrejected all but 2 Catholic sacraments– baptism & communion (the Lord’s Supper)baptism & communion (the Lord’s Supper)– Baptism signified rebirth through graceBaptism signified rebirth through grace– kept communion but rejected idea of kept communion but rejected idea of

transubstantiationtransubstantiation

organized priesthood unnecessary as any Christian organized priesthood unnecessary as any Christian following the word of God was his own priestfollowing the word of God was his own priest

By 1530 – German states that had converted to By 1530 – German states that had converted to Lutheranism supervised & disciplined church membersLutheranism supervised & disciplined church members

denounced clerical celibacy – married a former nun & denounced clerical celibacy – married a former nun & provided the model for the new Protestant ministerprovided the model for the new Protestant minister

Germany & the ReformationGermany & the ReformationCharles VCharles V wanted to keep the wanted to keep the Hapsburg control of HRE & Hapsburg control of HRE & preserve the unity of Catholic preserve the unity of Catholic faith throughout Germanyfaith throughout GermanyHapsburg-Valois Wars (1521-Hapsburg-Valois Wars (1521-1544) prevented Charles from 1544) prevented Charles from dealing with Luther problemdealing with Luther problem1527 - sack of Rome1527 - sack of Rome– Pope Clement VII joined the Pope Clement VII joined the

side of France, drawing side of France, drawing Spain’s wrathSpain’s wrath

Ottoman threat in the east also Ottoman threat in the east also drew his attentiondrew his attentionprotestant princes in Ger. Side protestant princes in Ger. Side w/ Henry II of France against w/ Henry II of France against Charles in Schmalkaldic WarsCharles in Schmalkaldic Wars1555 - 1555 - Peace of AugsbergPeace of Augsberg– recognized both Catholic & recognized both Catholic &

Lutheran churchesLutheran churches

Spread of Protestant ReformationSpread of Protestant ReformationZwinglian ReformationZwinglian Reformation p.357p.357

started 1523 by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) priest in Zurich, Switzerlandstarted 1523 by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) priest in Zurich, Switzerlandtown meetings & debates became main way to spread Reformationtown meetings & debates became main way to spread Reformation– protestants had new ideas & Catholics not use to defending teachingsprotestants had new ideas & Catholics not use to defending teachings

movement hit a snag by 1528, cities were converting, but rural cantons movement hit a snag by 1528, cities were converting, but rural cantons remained staunchly Catholicremained staunchly Catholiccould not unite Protestants due to differences w/ Lutheran faithcould not unite Protestants due to differences w/ Lutheran faith– upon hearing of Zwingli’s death, Luther remarked that he “got what he upon hearing of Zwingli’s death, Luther remarked that he “got what he

deserved.”deserved.”

Anabaptists Anabaptists literally tried to return to the spirit & practices of early Christianityliterally tried to return to the spirit & practices of early Christianity– lived in a democratic community were everyone was equallived in a democratic community were everyone was equal– Lord’s Supper was symbolic & reenacted in private evening mealsLord’s Supper was symbolic & reenacted in private evening meals– each community chosen ministers lead simple church serviceseach community chosen ministers lead simple church services– believed in complete separation of church & state (state laws didn’t apply)believed in complete separation of church & state (state laws didn’t apply)

Considered radicals who threatened 16Considered radicals who threatened 16 thth century society century society– Catholic & Protestants could agree on thisCatholic & Protestants could agree on this

descendants from these early Anabaptists in America:descendants from these early Anabaptists in America:– MennonitesMennonites– Amish Amish

Reformation in EnglandReformation in Englandstarted because Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife, started because Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she hadn’t provided him an heirCatherine of Aragon, because she hadn’t provided him an heir

– Pope might have allowed it if Catherine had not been Pope might have allowed it if Catherine had not been Charles V’s auntCharles V’s aunt

passed legislation that basically abolished papal authority in passed legislation that basically abolished papal authority in EnglandEngland

1534 – 1534 – Act of SupremacyAct of Supremacy stated that the king was the supreme head of the church in stated that the king was the supreme head of the church in

EnglandEngland passed passed Treason ActTreason Act – denying the king was punishable – denying the king was punishable

by deathby death

little changed in the actual church serviceslittle changed in the actual church services

• priests still forbidden to marry, but many secretly didpriests still forbidden to marry, but many secretly did• final decade of his reign - spent more time looking for perfect final decade of his reign - spent more time looking for perfect

wife than running the churchwife than running the church

Wives of Henry VIIIWives of Henry VIII

1.1. Catherine of Aragon (divorced) - mother of MaryCatherine of Aragon (divorced) - mother of Mary

2.2. Anne Boleyn (beheaded) - mother of ElizabethAnne Boleyn (beheaded) - mother of Elizabeth

3.3. Jane Seymour (died in childbirth) - mother of Edward VIJane Seymour (died in childbirth) - mother of Edward VI

4.4. Anne of Cleves (divorced) - uglyAnne of Cleves (divorced) - ugly

5.5. Catherine Howard (beheaded) - adulterousCatherine Howard (beheaded) - adulterous

6.6. Catherine Parr (outlived Henry)Catherine Parr (outlived Henry)

when Henry died, his son Edward VI become king at 9when Henry died, his son Edward VI become king at 9– died at 15died at 15

Henry’s oldest daughter Mary succeeded EdwardHenry’s oldest daughter Mary succeeded Edward– Mary was Catholic, unpopularMary was Catholic, unpopular– married Phillip II of Spainmarried Phillip II of Spain– prosecuted protestants, earned the name “Bloody Mary”prosecuted protestants, earned the name “Bloody Mary”

John Calvin & Calvinism p 362John Calvin & Calvinism p 362French born, highly educated in humanist studiesFrench born, highly educated in humanist studies

converted to Protestantism 1533converted to Protestantism 1533

1536 – wrote 1536 – wrote Institutes of the Christian ReligionInstitutes of the Christian Religion– Secured his place as one on the new Protestant leadersSecured his place as one on the new Protestant leaders

run out of Paris for Protestant beliefsrun out of Paris for Protestant beliefs

agreed w/ Luther on many basic beliefsagreed w/ Luther on many basic beliefs– Justification by FaithJustification by Faith– believed in the absolute sovereignty of God and believed in the absolute sovereignty of God and predestinationpredestination– PredestinationPredestination – belief that God predestined some to be saved and – belief that God predestined some to be saved and

some to be damnedsome to be damned

1541 – established the 1541 – established the Ecclesiastical OrdinancesEcclesiastical Ordinances– created a church state in Genevacreated a church state in Geneva– Consistory created to enforce moral discipline in Geneva (p363)Consistory created to enforce moral discipline in Geneva (p363)– serious offenses were turned over to the city council for punishmentserious offenses were turned over to the city council for punishment– called Huguenots in France & Puritains in Englandcalled Huguenots in France & Puritains in England

The Catholic ReformationThe Catholic ReformationReformation served as wake-up Reformation served as wake-up call the Catholic church neededcall the Catholic church needed

1550 – Lutheranism in Germany & 1550 – Lutheranism in Germany & Scandinavia; Calvinism in Scandinavia; Calvinism in Switzerland, France, & ScotlandSwitzerland, France, & Scotland

reforms carried out during this reforms carried out during this period lead to what is referred to period lead to what is referred to as the as the Catholic ReformationCatholic Reformation or or Counter ReformationCounter Reformation

retained the best religious rights retained the best religious rights of medieval church & reformed the of medieval church & reformed the more outdated rightsmore outdated rights

monastic orders were reformed, monastic orders were reformed, returning them to their rootsreturning them to their roots

new orders of monks & nuns are new orders of monks & nuns are created (Carmelites, Ursulines)created (Carmelites, Ursulines)

founded by Ignatius of Loyolafounded by Ignatius of Loyola

soldier injured in combat, vowed to become “soldier of God”soldier injured in combat, vowed to become “soldier of God”

recognized as a religious group by papal bull in 1540recognized as a religious group by papal bull in 1540

structured like a military organization, led by a generalstructured like a military organization, led by a general

ActivitiesActivities

established highly disciplined schools (borrowed form established highly disciplined schools (borrowed form humanist methods)humanist methods)

Missionary work among non-ChristiansMissionary work among non-Christians– Very successful in the Far EastVery successful in the Far East– St. Francis Xavier traveled to India, Malacca, Moluccas, & JapanSt. Francis Xavier traveled to India, Malacca, Moluccas, & Japan

Determined to fight ProtestantismDetermined to fight Protestantism– Jesuits successful to restoring some of the Church’s influence in Jesuits successful to restoring some of the Church’s influence in

Germany & PolandGermany & Poland

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

A Revived PapacyA Revived Papacypontification of Pope Paul III proved to be a turning point in reform pontification of Pope Paul III proved to be a turning point in reform of the papacyof the papacy

continued to papal traditions of nepotism, involvement in politics continued to papal traditions of nepotism, involvement in politics & served as patron of the arts & served as patron of the arts but …but …– also appointed advocates of reform as cardinalsalso appointed advocates of reform as cardinals– 1535: appointed a reform commission to study condition of church1535: appointed a reform commission to study condition of church– commission report in 1537 blamed problems on corrupt policies of commission report in 1537 blamed problems on corrupt policies of

the pope & cardinalsthe pope & cardinals

– formally recognized the Jesuits and called the Council of Trentformally recognized the Jesuits and called the Council of Trent

some Catholic reformers favored concessions to protestants, some Catholic reformers favored concessions to protestants, others saw that as hereticalothers saw that as heretical

1542 – Paul III established the Roman Inquisition1542 – Paul III established the Roman Inquisition– no compromise with Protestantismno compromise with Protestantism

Cardinal Gian Pietro Caraffa named Paul IV in 1555Cardinal Gian Pietro Caraffa named Paul IV in 1555

Established banned books listEstablished banned books list– Included all Protestant works & any works seen as “unwholesome” Included all Protestant works & any works seen as “unwholesome”

The Council of TrentThe Council of Trent1542 – Paul III called the council to solve the problems created by 1542 – Paul III called the council to solve the problems created by Protestant revoltProtestant revoltThe Council did not actually meet until 1545The Council did not actually meet until 1545– war (Spain & France), plague, & succession of popes kept the war (Spain & France), plague, & succession of popes kept the

council from meeting annuallycouncil from meeting annually– met intermittently in three major sessions 1545 – 1563met intermittently in three major sessions 1545 – 1563– Moderates hoped a softening of church doctrine would encourage Moderates hoped a softening of church doctrine would encourage

protestants to return to the churchprotestants to return to the church– Conservatives favored an uncompromising restatement of church Conservatives favored an uncompromising restatement of church

doctrines in opposition to Protestant positionsdoctrines in opposition to Protestant positionsConservative views won outConservative views won out

Scripture & tradition equal authorities in religious mattersScripture & tradition equal authorities in religious matters– only the Church could interpret scriptureonly the Church could interpret scripture

both faith & good deeds needed to achieve salvationboth faith & good deeds needed to achieve salvationthe 7 sacraments, transubstantiation, clerical celibacy the 7 sacraments, transubstantiation, clerical celibacy upheldupheldbelief in Purgatory & efficacy of indulgences reaffirmed belief in Purgatory & efficacy of indulgences reaffirmed

Politics & Wars of Religion in the 16Politics & Wars of Religion in the 16thth Century CenturyThe French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

French kings tried to halt Protestantism by persecuting CalvinistsFrench kings tried to halt Protestantism by persecuting Calvinists

as much as 40-50% of nobility became as much as 40-50% of nobility became HuguenotsHuguenots (French (French Calvinists)Calvinists)– including House of Bourbon (ruled kingdom of Navarre)including House of Bourbon (ruled kingdom of Navarre)– Calvinists were only 10% of total pop, but were well organizedCalvinists were only 10% of total pop, but were well organized

Valois strong Catholic familyValois strong Catholic family– practically controlled the Catholic churchpractically controlled the Catholic church– little reason to look on any Protestant favorablylittle reason to look on any Protestant favorably

1559 - Henry II dies, France ruled by succession of weak kings1559 - Henry II dies, France ruled by succession of weak kings

Charles IX becomes king, sister marries Henry of NavarreCharles IX becomes king, sister marries Henry of Navarre

many Huguenots come to Paris to see wedding, Charles uses this many Huguenots come to Paris to see wedding, Charles uses this chance to wipe out as many Protestants as possiblechance to wipe out as many Protestants as possible

Thousands of Huguenots killed, Henry saves own life by promising Thousands of Huguenots killed, Henry saves own life by promising to convert to Catholicism to convert to Catholicism

After Charles IX dies, Henry III takes throneAfter Charles IX dies, Henry III takes throne– War of Three HenriesWar of Three Henries

Henry III allies w/ Henry of Navarre against “ultra-Henry III allies w/ Henry of Navarre against “ultra-Catholics” & Henry of GuiseCatholics” & Henry of Guise

– 1589 - Henry III assassinated by a monk disgusted by fact 1589 - Henry III assassinated by a monk disgusted by fact that king allied w/ a Protestantthat king allied w/ a Protestant

– Henry of Navarre becomes Henry IVHenry of Navarre becomes Henry IVEdict of Nantes – 1598 established Catholicism as nat’l Edict of Nantes – 1598 established Catholicism as nat’l religion, but guaranteed Huguenots freedom to worshipreligion, but guaranteed Huguenots freedom to worship

Philip II & Revolt in the NetherlandsPhilip II & Revolt in the Netherlands– Netherlands consisted of 17 provincesNetherlands consisted of 17 provinces– No common ties w/ exception of foreign ruler, Philip IINo common ties w/ exception of foreign ruler, Philip II– 1566 - Calvinists revolted under Spanish rule attacking 1566 - Calvinists revolted under Spanish rule attacking

churcheschurches– Spanish leaders used religion to split the Dutch oppositionSpanish leaders used religion to split the Dutch opposition– Battle between Catholics & Protestants continue until 1609Battle between Catholics & Protestants continue until 1609– Spain did not formally recognize the 7 Protestant provinces Spain did not formally recognize the 7 Protestant provinces

as the Dutch Republic until 1648as the Dutch Republic until 1648

The England of ElizabethThe England of Elizabethafter “Bloody” Mary died in 1558, her ½ sister Elizabeth after “Bloody” Mary died in 1558, her ½ sister Elizabeth ascended the throneascended the throneduring this time England would rise to prominence as a leader during this time England would rise to prominence as a leader of Protestant nations & lay the foundations of an empireof Protestant nations & lay the foundations of an empireduring Mary’s reign, imprisoned for a period of timeduring Mary’s reign, imprisoned for a period of timemoved quickly to resolve the religious problems inherited from moved quickly to resolve the religious problems inherited from MaryMary– enacted moderate Protestant legislature to keep religious enacted moderate Protestant legislature to keep religious

warfare from breaking outwarfare from breaking out– placed cousin, Mary of Scotland, under house arrestplaced cousin, Mary of Scotland, under house arrest– had Mary executed in 1587, to end threat to English thronehad Mary executed in 1587, to end threat to English throne

Puritans proved to be more dangerous than Catholics in long Puritans proved to be more dangerous than Catholics in long run, because they wanted to remove all traces of Catholicism run, because they wanted to remove all traces of Catholicism from the church from the church Elizabeth handled Parliament skillfully, only met 13 times inElizabeth handled Parliament skillfully, only met 13 times in 45 45 years of her reignyears of her reign

Foreign PolicyForeign Policyknew war could be disastrous for Englandknew war could be disastrous for Englandunofficially encouraged English seamen to raid Spanish ships unofficially encouraged English seamen to raid Spanish ships of silver & gold from New Worldof silver & gold from New Worldsecretly provided French Huguenots & Dutch Calvinists to secretly provided French Huguenots & Dutch Calvinists to weaken France & Spainweaken France & Spainbecame more active in Netherlands, Philip II decided that the became more active in Netherlands, Philip II decided that the revolt would never end as long as England was involvedrevolt would never end as long as England was involvedPhilip prepared a fleet of warships to escort the forces in the Philip prepared a fleet of warships to escort the forces in the Netherlands across the English Channel to invade EnglandNetherlands across the English Channel to invade England

Spanish ArmadaSpanish Armadadisastrous for Spain, simply believed that God was on their disastrous for Spain, simply believed that God was on their side and everything would just fall into placeside and everything would just fall into placeLeft for England without the ships and troops they intendedLeft for England without the ships and troops they intendedDefeated in several encounters w/ English navyDefeated in several encounters w/ English navy– battered by storms in northern retreat around Scotland & Ireland battered by storms in northern retreat around Scotland & Ireland – marks downfall of Spain as a powermarks downfall of Spain as a power