chapter 1.doc- introduction to data, db and dba - shodhganga

Chapter 1.doc- Introduction to Data, DB and DBA

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_________________________________________________ A Study of Database Administration 2

1.1. INTRODUCTION:

Now, in the beginning of twenty first century which is called 'information

century ' this research study, intends to investigate the most important feature

of this era that is 'data' (''means: details, document, facts, figures, information,

input, materials, and statistics.''1)

1.1.1 Data definition:

Elmasri and Navathe defined data as: ''By data, we mean known facts that

can be recorded and that have implicit meaning."2

C. J. Date also defines data as: "The word data derives from the Latin for 'to

give'; thus, data is really given facts, from which additional facts can be

inferred."3

D. H. McBurney evaluates data as: "It is worth noting that data is a plural

word. The singulare form is datum. A datum is a fact, and data are a

collection of facts."4

1.1.2 Early data:

Early days, when man had not been developed by the means of

communication, in order to survive, he was in need of some information about

the world around him to find food and shelter that information in broader

initiatives and more serious concept can be called as data, today.

Half a million years ago our ancestors learned to make fire from scratch. They

crafted complicated tools from stone and developed mind-altering medicine

from honey. Their descendants transformed clay into pottery, wool into

clothing, etc. Now, man after millions of years still is in pursuit of his goal with

the same purpose, and nothing more than that. A part of this study has aimed

at the nature of human, and his instinct senses, which fear is one of mans


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nature, and in return of fear he desires to be safe, and safeguard what he

has, in order not to lose them.

It might be fear of darkness, hunting or

being hunted, fire, coldness, etc. from

caveman'si,5 point of view, and losing a

market or appealing others' fund / energy

in today’s human mind. "…we lived and

died in fear. Fear of the darkness which

harbors terrors unseen. Fear of the cold

which lulls us to sleep everlasting. Fear of

the tooth and the claw, which hound us

both in wakes and in dreams."6 But, clear

and obvious is that, when man was

getting something new, he has passed the

previous one on to others. Painting in the caves era and technology in this

epoch can approve it, but what were they doing, till achieving the new thing?

Hiding it..! Let’s say secure it. "…when he has first judged his character and

decided whether he can have a pious and just feeling about these things and

can keep them secure."7

So, we can say that, 'security'ii,8 is the contradictory point of 'fear'

iii,9 which is

another instinct sense of human. Man was staying in the caves, under the

ground or far from others sight with all his belongings in the past, and now

keep his belongings (information) far from himself, safe and easily accessible

in a 'database'iv,10

in Information Technology (21 Century) time to remain

secure.

i Caveman: prehistoric man who lived in cave. ii Security: Anything that gives or assures safety.

iii Fear: A feeling of alarm or disquiet caused by awareness expectation of danger.

iv Database: A collection of data arranged for computer retrieval.

Figure-1.1 Caveman Painting Source: http://images.google.com/images

http://images.google.com/images


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During the years, man has analyzed and segmented the data (even written

document) differently, according to the needs (daily) and precedence of the

work in various frames, to keep them secure, and not to be accessed by

unauthorized persons. The frame could be a file, directory, safe, locker… etc.,

but the most important aspect of it, was the security and safety, i.e. not to be

changed with other things or used by anyone and availability of deposit(s),

whenever needed.

Same thing is applicable to a database (DB), if we assume a database as a

frame of deposited data, we have to be able to retrieve (access) the data at

the time of necessity. It’s mentioned also, "The database system must ensure

the safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at an

unauthorized access."11

In the past, in order to access of data placed in one location, physical

presence was unavoidable because the means for access and managing

data from far distance was not known to man. Since it seems that, It's been a

barrier and troublesome.

1.1.3 New data:

Man persuaded to rectify this problem, in this effort computer played the best

role as soon as it came into existence. Thus, mans' nightmare came to an

end with the incredible ability of this machine.

With the help of this machine and the storage devices supplied at large, mans

perspective thoroughly changed about data, manipulation and security of it.

Raghu & Gehrke also noted that "From earliest days of computer, storing and

manipulating data have been a major application focus.”12


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But, to manage data in a multi tasking machine with various storage places

there has to be different methods to control that data. Data must be Sharable;

data should be available any how, any time, any where at any cost! Data

must be changeable, and data should not lose its reliability. "for data to be

managed better, four objectives must be achieved: (a) users must be able to

share data; (b) data must be available to users when it is needed, in the

location where it is needed, and in the form in which it is needed; (c) it must

be possible to modify data fairly easily in light of changing user requirement;

and (d) the integrity of data must be preserved."13

1.2. HISTORY OF COMPUTER AND DB:

In order to have a better idea researcher would take you back to libraries,

governmental, business, and medical records. Where; there is a very long

history of information storage, indexing, and retrieval. We can't ignore this

history; there is usually something to learn from these folks and their success

and failure. A computer is a machine for manipulating data according to a list

of instructions. Computers take numerous physical forms. Early electronic

computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as

several hundred modern personal computers.

1960's: Vacuum tube-based computers were

largely replaced in the 1960s by transistor-

based devices, which were smaller, faster, and

cheaper, used less power and were more

reliable. But Computers became cost effective

for private companies along with increasing

storage capability of computers. Accordingly

and at the same time for database, two main

data models were developed: network model

(CODASYL) and hierarchical (IMS).

Figure-1.2 Transistor

Source:

http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/compon.htm


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"IMS formed the basis for an alternative

data representation framework called

the hierarchical data model."14

1970-72: By the 1970s, the adoption of

integrated circuit technology and the

subsequent creation of microprocessors

such as the Intel 4004 caused another

leap in size, speed, cost and reliability. In this time E.F. Codd proposed

relational model for databases in a landmark paper on how to think about

databases. He disconnected the schema (logical organization) of a database

from the physical storage methods. This system has been standard ever

since. "…Edgar Codd, at IBM's San Jose Research Laboratory, proposed a

new data representation framework called the relational data model."15

1970's: Since the advent of the IC in the mid-

1970s, the microprocessor has become the

most prevalent implementation of the CPU,

nearly completely replacing all other forms.

Simultaneously for DB, several camps of

proponents argue about merits of the competing

systems, while the theory of databases led to

mainstream research projects. Two main

prototypes for relational systems were

developed during 1974-77. These provide nice

example of how theory leads to best practice.

"Ingres was not originally an SQL system; instead, it supported a language

called QUEL ("Query Language"), which in many respects was technically

superior to SQL."16

Figure-1.3 Integrated Circuit Source:

www.intel.com/museum/archives/4004.htm

Figure-1.4 Microprocessor Source:

www.intel.com/museum/online/hist_micro/hof/

http://www.intel.com/museum/online/hist_micro/hof/


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Figure-1.5 Entity Relationship

1976: P. Chen proposed the Entity-Relationship (ER) model for database

design giving yet another important insight into conceptual data models.

Such higher level modeling allows the designer to concentrate on the use of

data instead of logical table structure. "the term 'entity' is commonly used in

database circles to mean any distinguishable object that is to be represented

in the database."17

In addition to the basic entities themselves (Artist, Song,

and so on, in the example) "there will also be relationships linking those

basic entities together. Such relationships are represented by diamonds and

connecting lines."18

In figure No. 4 there is a relationship ("Performs")

between Artist and the Song: Each Artist performs different Songs and

conversely each Song would be performed by different Artists.

Early 1980's: By the 1980s, computers

had become sufficiently small and

cheap to replace simple mechanical

controls in domestic appliances such as

washing machines. Around the same

time, computers became widely

accessible for personal use by

individuals in the form of home

computers. So, commercialization of

relational systems begins as a boom in

Artist Performs Song

Figure-1.6 Age of PC's IBM PC 1981 Source: http://www-

03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html

http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html

http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html


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computer purchasing fuels DB market for business. "In the 1980, the

relational model consolidated its position as the dominant DBMS paradigm;

and database system continued to gain widespread use."19

Mid-1980's: 1987 Apple took advantage of

the new Motorola technology and introduced

the Macintosh II, which used a 16 MHz

Motorola 68020 processor. This marked the

start of a new direction for the Macintosh, as

now, for the first time, it had open architecture

with several expansion slots, support for color

graphics and a modular break out design

similar to that of the IBM PC and inspired by

Apple’s other line, the expandable Apple II series. In the same time SQL

(Structured Query Language) becomes "intergalactic standard". "SQL was

standardized in the late 1980s, and the current standard, SQL-92, was

adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and

International Standards Organization (ISO)."20

DB2 becomes IBM's flagship product. Network and hierarchical models fade

into the background, with essentially no development of these systems today

but some legacy systems are still in use. Development of the IBM PC gives

rise to many DB companies and products such as RIM, RBASE 5000,

PARADOX, OS/2 Database Manager, Dbase III, IV (later Foxbase, even later

Visual FoxPro), Watcom SQL. "Several vendors (e.g., IBM's DB2, Oracle 8,

Informx UDS) have extended their systems with the ability to store new data

types such as images and text, and with the ability to ask more complex

queries."21

Figure-1.7 Macintosh II Source:



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Early 1990's: An industry shakeout

begins with fewer surviving companies

offering increasingly complex products at

higher prices. Much development during

this period centers on client tools for

application development such as

PowerBuilder (Sybase), Oracle

Developer, VB (Microsoft), etc. Client-

server model for computing becomes

the norm for future business decisions. Development of personal productivity

tools such as Excel/Access (MS) and ODBC. This also marks the beginning

of Object Database Management Systems (ODBMS) prototypes.

Mid-1990's: The usable Internet/w.w.w emerges. A

mad scramble ensues to allow remote access to

computer systems with legacy data. Client-server

passion reaches the desktop of average users with

little patience for complexity while Web/DB grows

exponentially, as Silberschatz et.al. express "In

recent years computer networking has grown

enormously, and today tens of millions of computers

are connected on the global internet. Many of the

users (people as well as organizations) have

information stored on these computers that they would like to share with the

rest of the world."22

Late-1990's: The large investment in Internet companies fuels tools market

boom for Web/Internet/DB connectors. Active Server Pages, Front Page,

Java Servlets, Java Data Base Connectivity (JDBC), Enterprise Java Beans,

ColdFusion, Dream Weaver, Oracle Developer 2000, etc. are examples of

Figure-1.8 Supercomputer Age Source: http://images.google.com/images

Figure-1.9 World Wide Web Source:



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such offerings. Open source solution come online with widespread use of

GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), Common Gateway Interface (CGI), Apache,

MySQL, etc. Online Transaction processing (OLTP) and online analytic

processing (OLAP) comes of age with many merchants using point-of-sale

(POS) technology on a daily basis. "Most significantly, perhaps, DBMSs have

entered the Internet Age."23

Early 21st century: Decline of the Internet industry as a whole but solid

growth of DB applications continues. More interactive applications appear

with use of Personal Digital Assistance (PDA), POS transactions,

consolidation of vendors, etc. Three main (western) companies predominate

in the large DB market: IBM (buys Informix), Microsoft, and Oracle.

Up to here, researcher tried to give a brief idea about history of the computer

as well as database. Thus, as it's apparent, researchers' intention is to

elaborate database administration, but it is not possible before a slight

introduction of computer and database, while the researcher has referred to

the mans' intuition concerning safeguarding of his belongings.

Now, in the 21st Century, man still thinks about the belongings, but those

things are in the form of data now. The data being stored in a database has to

be controlled and protected by a Database Management System (DBMS).

DBMS has a concurrent control on all kinds of data stored in a database.

1.3 DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA):

"Increasingly, organizations are recognizing that data is a critical resource

that must be managed properly."24

Hence, a database administrator (DBA) is

a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database. In

general, those include:

Recoverability - Creating and testing Backups

Integrity - Verifying or helping to verify data integrity


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Security - Defining and/or implementing access controls to the

data

Availability - Ensuring maximum uptime

Performance - Ensuring maximum performance given budgetary

constraints

Development and testing support - Helping programmers and

engineers to efficiently utilize the database.

"The technical person responsible for implementing the data administrator's

decision is the database administrator (DBA in short)."25

Awad defines it as

"A specialist whose main tasks are to protect and manage the data base,

resolve user conflict, and maintain and update the system."26

Figure-1.10 the chain of events

Need for

mediation

Compromise

Resource

sharing

User

conflict

Intervention

by the

data/database

administrator


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The role of a database administrator has changed according to the

technology of database management systems (DBMSs) as well as the needs

of the owners of the databases. For example, although logical and physical

database designs are traditionally the duties of a database analyst or

database designer, a DBA may be tasked to perform those duties. It is

pointed out also "…the task of designing and maintaining the database is

entrusted to a professional called the database administrator."27

Database administrator has got various definitions by different authors here

is another one "…using DBMSs is to have central control of both the data

and the programs that access those data. The person who has such central

control over the system is called the database administrator (DBA)."28

And "In

a database environment, the primary resource is the database itself, and the

secondary resource is the DBMS and related software. Administrating these

resources is the responsibility of the database administrator (DBA)."29

1.3.1. Duties of a DBA:

The duties of a database administrator vary and depend on the job

description, corporate and Information Technology (IT) policies and the

technical features and capabilities of the DBMS being administered. They

nearly always include disaster recovery (backups and testing of backups),

performance analysis and tuning, and some database design. The duties,

rather role of DBA can be categorized into managerial and technical aspect.

1.3.2 Concurrency Control:

In computer science more specifically, in the field of databases and database

theory, concurrency control is a method used to ensure that database

transactions are executed in a safe manner (i.e., without data loss).

Concurrency control is especially applicable to database management

systems (DBMS), which must ensure that transactions are executed safely

and that they follow the ACID rules, as described in the following part (1.3.3).


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Ron Weber has pointed out as "…a major goal was to allow users of the

database to share the same data resources."30

The DBMS must be able to

ensure that only serializable, recoverable schedules are allowed, and that no

actions of committed transactions are lost while undoing aborted transactions.

Such type of problems may arise in distributed databases also "…therefore,

to determine whether the concurrency control implemented in a distributed

database management system will maintain the integrity of data under all

situation in which data resource conflicts arise."31

In computer science - in the field of concurrent programming (also parallel

programming and parallel computing on multiprocessor machines) -

concurrency control is a method used to ensure that correct results are

generated, while getting those results as quickly as possible.

Several algorithms can be used for either type of concurrency control (i.e.,

with in-RAM data structures on systems that have no database, or with on-

disk databases).

1.3.3. ACID rules:

"More precisely, however, a transaction must have four properties-the so-

called ACID properties."32

(Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) ACID is a set of properties that

guarantee that database transactions are processed reliably. In the context of

databases, a single logical operation on the data is called a transaction. An

example of a transaction is a transfer of funds from one account to another,

even though it might consist of multiple individual operations (such as

debiting one account and crediting another).

1.4 DATA ADMINISTRATION:

As, it's been mentioned earlier Ron Weber and C. J. Date expressed that DA

can handle the functionality and type of data. Here, researcher tends to find


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whether these roles are practically performed by DBA to achieve the

organization goal. Secondly, as said by Ron Weber, DBA can be assisted by

Data Administrator (DA).

Researcher is trying to confirm that, whether DBA needs anyone else more

than a DA or not. Here, as far as large organizations are concerned the

complexity for process of the work would be also in an immense level and

needs more experts to be involved in to handle it. What researcher is trying to

do is, finding any shortage in performance of the roles delegated to DBA's

against any possibility like: manpower, skill, experience, etc. Now, let us

know who is data administrator and what does exactly he do? Various

authors have defined DA as:

C. J. Date define it as: " 'The concept implies that there will be some

identifiable person in the enterprise who has this central responsibility for the

data, that person is the data administrator (DA for short).' …'it is data

administrator's job to decide what data should be stored in the database in

the first place, and to establish policies for maintaining and dealing with that

data once it has been stored'."33

Ron Weber State it as: " 'The data administrator handles technical

matters.'…' A major task that data administrators and database

administrators perform is to mediate when conflict arises in a shared data

environment. In addition, they undertake the following five functions: (a)

defining, creating, redefining, and retiring data; (b) making the database

available to users, (c) informing and servicing users, (d) maintaining database

integrity, and (e) monitoring operations and performance.' "34

As far as its concerned a DA is more in technical aspects of data than the

other tasks, in the meantime he would be in touch with DBA for initial stages


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of database. They are the source of information for database which user can

refer to. Therefore; any type of problem should be communicate to them.

1.5 NEED OF THE STUDY:

What ever discussed earlier is about the database and its performance, ways

to design a database and database security. The main issue of this research

is on database administrator performance, one who handles database

anytime, anywhere, anyhow with high risk and the best possible method.

Thus, researcher intends to discover how a DBA is able to do his task, and

what actually the task (called roles) contains? What are those roles? And

whether the roles entrusted to him are performed accordingly or not.

In the 21st century, due to high explosion in each and every area of the large

industries specially size of the organizations. The volume of transactions

particularly through wires has increased enormously.

Consequently, some intellectual barriers in spite of the performance of those

transactions have aroused. Thus, researcher is persuaded to study the

administration of database to discover any probable shortage of performance

in result of administrative roles being assigned to database professionals.

To achieve this goal researcher has to find out different approaches about

need of a DBA in an organization and whether a person like him is able to run

the database singly or he has to be assisted by any one as DA and UA.

Through the research work something related to the same issue, observed by

the researcher. Even various authors have claimed the same matter also,

which researcher tends to bring the one by Ron Weber "When management

first recognized the need for independent mediator to resolve data-resource

conflicts, their response was to create the database administration role. A

single role proved inadequate, however, for two reasons.

First, It became clear that competency in the role required two different

types of skills: A set of administrative skills was needed to handle


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managerial and policy matters and to interact effectively with database

users, and a set of technical skills was also needed to handle the detailed

design work and to tune the database so it could be used efficiently. Few

people have both sets of skills.

Second, over time, the database administrator’s workload became

excessive. As the amount of end-user computing, decentralized

computing, and distributed computing in organization grew, substantially

more support has had to be provided, especially to database users who

were not information systems professional. Consequently, the database

administration role was split. A new role was created, the data

administration role, to handle administrative and policy matters. The

database administrator’s role was then redefined to focus on technical

matters."35

However; researcher through the research work achieved that in era data

(21st Century), which is named as explosion of information, a huge volume of

data and set of transactions on data, are transferred in each and every

second between users of database(s), even distributed database. Therefore;

such a top level of dealings might be locale or global to the database, that

may boost up complexity of a persons' job, who is responsible for database

as DBA. Such a density may be particular in distributed database (discovered

during research work). The result itself confirms that, existence of an

intermediary in charge of users' deficiency, who is in touch with database,

and can handle users' efficiency, is necessary. Such person can be called as

User Administrator. Characteristic of a user administrator can be specified

in different steps as follow:

1.1.1 Classify the users.

1.1.2 Qualify the users.

1.1.3 Examine the user-ability while handling the job.


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Data

Admin

istrator

Database

Administrator

User Administrator

1.1.4 Train the users.

1.6.5 Clarify the system for the user.

1.6.6 Rectify user problem at user end.

The next step is data administrator, according to Weber. Database users

need various tools to interrogate and update the database. These tools must

be purchased or developed. Moreover, since users need change over time

and enhance, when new tools become available, someone must monitor the

needs of user population, and remain aware of the current tool technology, to

ensure that required tools are available on a timely basis. DBA has the

responsibility of making database available for users, who plays an important

role, which is maintaining the integrity of database.

Figure 1-11 database administration hierarchy


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Job of a DBA has to differ with the size of the organization. In a decentralized

organization, that is large in size and has distributed DB the role of the DBA

would differ with one in a parallel DB. So, he might be more in touch with the

data administrator (DA). Here researcher illustrates a Database

Administration flow of work with the help of below chart.

The chart shown above, clears that according to the hierarchy of database

administration, more we get far from DBA responsibility, the job would deal

with data and user more, it should be considered that the technical part is still

available even C. J. Date Noted that "…the data administration is a manager,

not a technician (although he or she certainly does need to have some

appreciation of the capabilities of database systems at a technical level)."36

Now, in order to find the complexity of the “DBA” role in different size of

organizations, when the results are obtained the weak and strong points

would be indicated in the managerial aspects of the database management,

and will be depicted in a diagram, which would contain information and data

in a level-wise manner. Whatever mentioned before, would provide a better

idea for the researcher to draw a fine chart of “DBA” role’s, in order to make

assure “integrity and security” of “data” within “database and database

management”,

1.6 WHAT IS THE DILEMMA?

There are certain problems in different Organizations especially large scales

that still exist even by taking advantage of having DBA controlling DB.

Problems might be due to lack of a qualified DBA or inability of users to

access DB in an Organization, improper privileges given to unauthorized

users, …etc.

The dilemma, and One of the most important factors in the IT departments as

the heart of the organizations, which cause a severe problem for the entire


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process of work, is income of the personnel and career growth planning being

well thought-out by the organizations for them. One of the most important

factors in IT department of the organizations is DB Administration team. A

proper career planning has to be considered in order to avoid change factor

in the process of work. There has to be a proper database administration

team including: data administrator (DA), database administrator (DBA), and

user administrator (UA).

Therefore; researcher is trying to take into consideration the most reliable

tasks, the Oracle Database Administration roles as a base for the DBA to

evaluate whether, those roles are taken care by the concerned DBA in the

Organization or not.

1.7 CHAPTERISATION:

The study would be classified in five chapters excluding Appendix.

1.7.1 The First: chapter elaborates a brief introduction about Data,

Database Administrator, and Data Administration. What has been

done earlier by the term DBA and what researcher wants to do? As, it

is noticeable, increase in complexity of roles has made DBA to be

assisted by DA and UA. These issues, are explained in details in the

following chapters.

1.7.2 The Second: chapter provides literature review of the DB, DBMS and

the process of improvement of work DB types, design, and even the

significance of the study. Then the problem which may threaten

different types of organizations internally or externally through access

that is security of information's. As, the most of large scale

Organizations are updated with automated systems and store their

data in the database, why the necessity of using a DBA is more


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concerned than before? Certain circumstances in the name of roles

are specified for DBA's. Oracle Corporation Ltd. has given a very

perfect set of roles. To perform these roles DBA should be quit

capable and qualified. Therefore, performance of these roles and

capability of a trained DBA and his assistance(s) are two major points

for this study.

1.7.3 The Third: chapter discusses about Methodology and the types of

methods and techniques used in this study. Hypothesis of the study

and data collection that is been done in various places and institutions,

in different levels of users who are accessing the DB. Questionnaires

and interview schedule which are being done in various places, data

organizing and arrangement of collected data, data analysis which

gives the proper result out of research study and at last presenting all

the works being processed in an academic manner. Aims and

objectives would be elaborated in this chapter.

1.7.4 The Forth: The data which has been collected is processed and

analyzed according to the defined outline, by Chi-Square testing

through SPSS package. This can be considered as the base of

research study, further more ensuring that we have got all relevant

data for making a contemplate comparison and analysis. Technically

speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and

tabulation of collected data so that they would be amenable to

analyze. "For a measurement to be of any use in science, it must

have both reliabilityi and validity

ii."

37

i The property of consistency of a measurement that gives the same result on different occasions.

Donald H. McBurney "Research Methodology"

ii (of a measurement) the property of a measurement that tests what it is supposed to test. Donald

H. McBurney "Research Methodology"


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Therefore, all collected data has been gathered according to the types

of the organizations (IT, Manufacturing, Service). Whatever found

analyzed and discussed. Then all the findings were interpreted to be

shown in a diagrammatic form for better conclusion. This has been

done with the help of respected guide in order to have perfect decision

out of the discussion.

1.7.5 The Fifth: this chapter enlists the research findings and suggestion.

All the findings are summarized, and the epigrammatic result in the

form of conclusion would be contributed for the same. Summaries are

included of all the matters discussed as well as findings. So, this

chapter gives a brief idea about the whole research work and the

obtained result to the reader of this research in order to have a precise

thought of the work done. Then, limitation is the next step to be

considered, that is Pune district.


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1.8 REFERENCES:

1 “COLLINS GEM THESAURUS” Pg. 104, 1990 2 Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant B. Navathe, 'Fundamentals of Database

Systems', (Forth Edition), Pearson Education (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. Indian Branch, India, 2005. Pg. 4

3 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 13 4 Donald H.McBurney 'Research Methods', Thomson Wads World, 2002

(5th Edition), Singapore. Pg. 381 5 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 112,

1st col., July 1989. 6 Kevin M. Dunn, 'Caveman Chemistry: 28 Projects, from the Creation of

Fire to the Production of Plastics', Universal Publishers: Parkland, 2003. Pg. 1

7 Kevin M. Dunn, 'Caveman Chemistry: 28 Projects, from the Creation of

Fire to the Production of Plastics', Universal Publishers: Parkland, 2003. Pg. 189

8 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 617,

2nd col., July 1989. 9 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 257,

1st col., July 1989.

10 'The American Heritage Dictionary', (Second College Edition), Pg. 180, 2nd col., July 1989.

11 Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, 'DATABASE

SYSTEM CONCEPTS', (Third Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2002. Pg. 1

12 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management

System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 5 13 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 206 14 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management

System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 5


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System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 16 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 231 17 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 11 18 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 11 19 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management

System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 20 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management

System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 21 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management

System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 6 22 Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, 'DATABASE



System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 7 24 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 207 25 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh Edition),

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 16 26 Elias M. Awad, 'System Analysis and Design', (Second Edition),

GalgotiaPvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Pg. 504 27 Rahgu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, 'Database Management

System', (Second Edition), McGraw-Hill Co., Singapore, 2000. Pg. 20 28 Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, 'DATABASE



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29 Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant B. Navathe, 'Fundamentals of Database

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30 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 575 31 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 580 32 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 578

33 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system', (Seventh

Edition), Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. p. 16 34 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT', (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 206 35 Ron Weber, 'INFORMATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND AUDIT' (Fifth

Indian Reprint), Pearson Education, India, 2003. Pg. 209-210 36 C. J. Date, 'An Introduction to DATABASE system' (Seventh Edition),

Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2000. Pg. 16

37 Donald H. McBurney, 'Research Methods', (Fifth Edition), Second reprint, Wadsworth, Thomson Asia Pte Ltd., India, 2002. p. 127

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