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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

India is a nation of villages. Traditionally, women had enjoyed a high social status in

India. Our mythology, folklore and history are full of women who were epitomes of

virtue, wisdom, power and position. Women like Savitri, Gargi, Viyottama, Maitreyi,

Kunti, Draupadi, Shakuntala, etc., were highly respected in their families and society.

There were others such as Sita, Radha, Rukmini, Padmavati, Vasavdatta, Padmini,

Dhruvaswamini who were a combination of love, grace and wit, and abundant talent.

Razia Begum, Noor Jehan, Rani of Chittor and Queen Laxmibai of Jhansi, Ahilya bai

Holker, Mrignayni, Rupmati, Durgavati and Avanti bai are examples of a combination

of political power and personal skills. In more recent times, Pandit Ramabai, Sarojini

Naidu, Indira Gandhi, Partibha Devi Singh Patil, Sonia Gandhi, Meira Kumar,

Sushma Swaraj, Margaret Alva, Mayawati, Sheela Dixit, Mamta banerjee, Uma

Bharti etc. are persons known for their toughness, dynamism and capacity to lead

millions.

Among the traditional beliefs, ideals and values of the Indian rural society, the most

important ideal is the “Concept of Panch-Parmeshwar”. Even after thousands of years,

this concept continues to be the specific identity of our rural culture. Pt. Nehru 1 said,

“Panchayat can be the only platform to ascertain the wishes of the villagers. If

panchayats are strong, then villages will be strong, from village to district, from

district to state and from state to nation will strengthen”. The history of the Panchayat

System in India and that of people's power is ancient-centuries old. The Panchayat

System came into existence right from the first step of humanity towards culture.

Keeping in mind the tradition of autonomy in the Indian social system, the

organization of administration and development at the village and regional level have

been deliberately tried to be decentralized. The makers of the constitution have also

accepted this thought to a great extent and have included them in the Directive 1 Dharam pal, 1962 Panchayati Raj and India's Polity, Vol. IV, (Combined Edition of I & II) p-16.

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principles of State policy. With the passage of 73rd Amendment, 1992, India is at a

crucial juncture in the evolution of Panchayati Raj institutions- the Indian brand of

rural local-self government and that of peoples' empowerment. It has envisioned

people’s participation in the process of planning, decision-making, implementation

and delivery system.

Keeping in the view the highest place accorded to women in the society, the principle

of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,

Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution

not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of

positive discrimination in favour of women. The 73rd constitutional Amendment has

created space for women in political participation and decision making at the grass

root level by providing that 1/3 rd of the seats are to be reserved for women all over

the country.

"It provides reservations for women in PRIs set up in two ways; for the office of the

members and for that of the chairpersons. As per the clause (2) and (3) of Article

243(d), not less than one third of the seats meant for direct election of members at

each tier of the Panchayats are to be reserved for the women." However some of the

states have recently made provisions for even 50% reservation for women in the

PRI's.

However, the Hindu tradition, as it has evolved, has been predominantly patriarchal

with a male dominated system within and outside the house. Women are considered

subservient to men. An ideal bride is the one who suffers quietly and follows the

dictates of her elders even when they act against her own convictions. Woman is

considered the property of man. The ancient Hindu epic as given in Manusmriti has

often been quoted, that a woman needs to be looked after by her father in her

childhood, by her husband in her youth, and by her son in her old age. These cultural

ethos find expression in words of blessings to a married woman: 'she may always

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remain saubhagyawati' (Fortunate), which amounts to saying that she may not

survive without her husband even for a day.

Our media also reflects this status and projects the woman as a self-sacrificing,

truthful and loving human being who has minimum involvement with the outside

world. Woman is always supposed to live the life of stereotypes, as wife, daughter,

mother or sister. It is unusual to find woman who is an independent human being who

can make up her own mind on issues affecting the society and her own life.

As per statistics the average age of marriage of girls in India is 19.6 years. In the rural

areas of India, girls are married off even earlier. A woman is considered a

responsibility and huddled into wedlock as soon as possible. Conversely, widows are

considered unlucky. The belief that woman is the property of man results in a lower

standard of upbringing afforded to a girl child. A daughter is hence brought up with a

feeling that she is actually a belonging or a property of another household. The father

prefers to spend on a girl’s dowry rather than on her education. In schools, there is a

heavy dropout rate of girl students.

The contribution of woman was valued in Vedic times as she could produce children

to make the family tree grow. With the growth in human population that role no

longer counts for much. Centuries of foreign invasion in India also contributed to

stricter control on women, and society kept them indoors. After her marriage, her

safety and well being are entirely the responsibility of her husband.

As man has greater muscle power, in an agricultural economy he enjoys a superior

status. The means of income are dominated by him. There has been almost complete

absence of independent income opportunities suited to women. Women, as a category,

have not protested much against this state, as they generally are not groomed to taking

hard decisions by themselves for many generations. There are very few instances of

independent minded women such as Meerabai, Chand Bibi, Noor Jehan, Rani

Laxmibai, Savitri phule and Pandita Ramabai who dared to defy tradition.

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Under the Muslim law, and tradition too, women do not enjoy equal status with men.

The law stipulates that the evidence given by two women is equal to that given by one

man. Women are not entitled to subsistence allowance if their husband divorces them,

whereas it is legal for a man to marry more than once. There is an arrangement for her

to bring up her children if the husband deserts her. Amongst Christians, there is a lot

of prejudice against women in the priestly hierarchy. Even in other religions such as

Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism, men dominated the power structure within and

outside the household.

In Indian society, there is very little value for the fact that in the totality of things,

men and women have different qualities, they are complementary to each other and

their relationship should not be one of superior and subordinate. As compared to

man's greater muscle power, women have greater capacity to care and nurture.

Women live longer and can withstand more stress; they have more patience,

perseverance and tenacity. They have fewer egos, and more capacity to give service,

and these are attributes which form the essence of being. Aristophanes, the Greek

playwright, had long ago advocated a greater role for women in the political affairs, as

man was capable of reveling in war and bloodshed, while woman cared for life.

Within the framework of a democratic polity that we have, our laws, development

policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s advancement in different

spheres in a myriad ways. From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards there has

been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to development.

In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized as the central issue

in determining the status of women. In view of this a study group was constituted

under the chairmanship of Shri Balwant Rai Mehta in 1957. On the basis of

recommendations of this committee, on 2nd October 1959 the Panchayati Raj was

formally established at Nagaur. From 1959 upto one decade both the Central and the

State governments took various steps for the progress of Panchayati-raj. However

during 1965-1969 this zeal cooled down and the period from 1969-1977 was the

period of the downward fall of the Panchayati-raj institutions in the country. In 1977

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another committee was constituted under the chairmanship of Shri Ashok Mehta

which was not accepted by the then congress government in 1980. Then in 1985 one

more committee under the chairmanship of G.B.K.Rao was constituted which

recommended strong reinforcement and delegation of powers at the block level but its

recommendations, too, could not be put into action. Similar fate was met by the report

of the Singhvi Committee. Ultimately that day dawned when Narsimharao

government introduced the proposed bill of the Rajiv Gandhi government pertaining

to establishment of a strong and autonomous Panchayati Raj Institutions with

provision for women reservation.

The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to

safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments

to the Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local bodies

of Panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation for their

participation in decision making at the local levels. It has been declared in the

constitution that the state will organize panchayats and will provide them such powers

so that they may work as autonomous bodies of the villages. It was felt on the basis of

experience that the weaker sections of the village such as craftsmen, small farmers,

and landless persons did not get partnership in the block development and extension

programmes and therefore, for the total participation of the weaker sections of society

including women at the social, economic and political level, it was decided to put in

heavy efforts and prime focus of all government activities towards these hitherto

neglected sections of the society. Recently the model of development through

women self help groups has gained wide support all over the country and these

groups have started playing a key role in this direction.

The 73rd Amendment gave a constitutional mandate for democratically elected

panchayats at the village, district and intermediate levels in the whole country with

provisions for (a) their regular elections, powers, resources and (b) for representation

of the hitherto socially and politically marginalised sections of scheduled castes,

scheduled tribes and women. It has thus become a watershed in deepening the roots of

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democracy and evolution of a third tier of constitutionally guaranteed stratum of

government with 1/3rd women as members.

The question of determining women’s entry into the arena of politics is of great

interest and importance across the world. Leaving aside the other problems of

politicisation of women and their entry into the center of the political power process,

the entire world is today amazed to see the rise of women power wherever they have

asserted themselves. However, the fact is that despite constituting half of the

population of the world, the number of women representatives among the elected

posts continues to remain negligible and the low participation of the women in

politics is the indicator of their second stage in the society and of their weaknesses.

Uneducated, economically dependent, social customs and rituals, traditions are the

main causes for the political inactivity of women. It is found that women execute

about two-third of the activities and work in the world but earn rights for a meager ten

percent income and only one percent of the means of production.

After the seventy third Amendment of the Constitution in 1992, the political

ambitions of the women of villages no doubt increased. A new revolution has dawned

in the villages. There is a beginning of the women leadership in the villages. Though

there is still widespread patriarchal outlook in the villages and lack of experience on

the part of women leadership and they are facing several challenges but it is not just to

compare the women leadership with the working procedure and pattern of the male

leaders who have experienced the luxuries of power positions for the last fifty years.

Women have not attained the pinnacle of power equations only by being elected to the

various posts; they have to still face the established male leadership in the family,

caste, community and several other places. The people, who talk of failure of women-

leadership, do approve the husband as proxy.

With the entry of women in the village leadership not only the patriarchal male

domination has weakened, but the social and political equations have also started

changing. The pace of social-cultural change has increased and taking about turn in its

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totality, with the women power playing its role and upsetting the established traditions

and the decision-making process.

1.2 Importance of the Study: -

The rise of women leadership with consequential women empowerment is a subject

matter of great sociological and economic importance from various points of views. It

has in fact raised the eyebrows of several thinkers and management gurus all over the

world as to how Indian women- hitherto living in oblivion for ages- have virtually

taken over the command of the rural leadership, economy and the family at large and

are able to steer the process of social change to their advantage.

In order to understand the process of this change, it is very essential to understand the

social structure of any community and its underlying power structure. This is because

the status of individuals and the groups are determined by the power structure in the

community. Right from the ancient times, in India, the status of the individuals in the

rural communities has been determined only on the basis of the power structure

prevailing in that community. Whenever there has been a change in the nature of

leadership, there is a positive change in the basis of power structure of the

community. Earlier when the hierarchical leadership on the basis of caste and religion

in the villages was dominant, then, the caste panchayats had an important role in the

power structure. But as the hierarchical leadership was gradually replaced by the

democratic leadership the social structures and the leadership patterns saw wide

spread changes. After the emergence of women leadership the situation has changed

further. The women, whose area of activities was limited to family and household,

now, took steps towards general welfare measures and leadership roles. Under such

circumstances it is but natural that one could easily observe the social and economic

upheavals and the metamorphosis taking place in the rural life.

In order to elucidate the concept further study and analysis of the following points

may be emphasized:-

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1.2.1 Literacy and Education:

The percentage of literate women in India is 39.19 as compared to 52.50 for men.

However in the rural areas, it is only 30.35. The adult literacy rate of females is 36.0%

while it is 64.3% for males. The enrolment percentage of girls can be seen from the

table given below:

1998-99 1995-96 1980-81

Primary 82.9 43.2 38.6

Middle 49.09 39.0 32.9

Secondary 23.31 35.3 29.6

There has been a marginal increase in the enrolment percentage as can be seen, but it

hides the drop-out rate of girls which still remains alarmingly high as the following

table would show:

1996-97 1994-95 1980-81

Primary 39.37 37.8 62.5

Middle 51.89 56.5 79.4

Secondary 66.82 73.8 86.6

The impact of this drop-out rate can spoil women's chances of higher income through

the next 2-3 decades as the question of a person's ability to earn a higher income is

linked to his ability to acquire higher education. In the absence of basic education or

literacy, hardly any technical or numerical skills/technical skills can be mastered and

it also acts as a big hindrance to women empowerment.

1.2.2 Gender Development:

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Out of a universe of 137 countries, India's gender related development ranks 103rd .

Life expectancy at birth of females is 60.7 as compared to 60.6 of males. As for

gender empowerment, India ranks 93rd out of a universe of 174 countries. It had

8.01% women in the last parliament and the proportion of administrators and

managers is only 2.3% while the professional and technical workers are 20.5%.

1.2.3 Economic Status:

Due to tradition, women generally had no independent economic status where as they

have always been contributing in a variety of ways to the economic activities of the

family. Except for the positions where they get wages, their work is not given

weightage, as its value is not converted into monetary terms. Women own not even

10% of the total property of the world and in India the position is not very different.

Since women have no assets, they do not have regular independent income. As per the

tradition, women are not supposed to come out of the house to work for wages. This

situation is generally truer of the higher caste families. For most of those belonging to

lower socio-economic strata, they have to do wage work to supplement the family

income. They may work on construction sites, irrigation dams, agriculture farms or as

landless labourers or in mills, factories and plantations, doing odd jobs, including

domestic service and home-based jobs. Their percentage among workers is as under:

Total Persons Women

Urban 37.5 22.27

Rural 40.09 26.79

There had been a rise in the percentage of female workers by 2% from 1981 to 1991,

yet women's share in the earned income is only 24.8% while men's share is 75.2% (all

figures are from Women in India, a Statical Profile – 1997: Department of Women

and Child Development, Ministry of HRD)2.

2 Women in India, a Statical Profile – 1997: Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of HRD

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However, with the women taking active part in politics mainly due to the historic

Constitutional provision, several states like Madhya pradesh and Chatisgarh have

made provisions for joint ownership of property both by the husband and wife.

Among other things land pattas (Abadi Land), Indira Awash pattas and even Forest

land settlement pattas are given by the government in the joint name of both the

husband and wife- a step which has curtailed the monopoly of males over property

and has enhanced the status of woman in the family ultimately leading to women

empowerment.

1.3 A Review of Literature:

There have been many studies on rural life, leadership, power structure, status and

role of women and so on. Democratic decentralization and studies related to the

panchayati-raj system are mostly dating after the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee

reports. It is so because the foundation for the Panchayati raj was laid only after this

committee report. Present study is related to the women leadership and

empowerment- its social and economic analysis in connection with the Panchayati-raj

system and more so with the rise of women power and the consequential

empowerment through the Self Help Groups. As such various referred studies have

been reviewed which are important, relevant and concerned with the intention of

study. They are as follows: -

S.S. Dhillon (1955)3 made studies in the south Indian villages related with the various

aspects of leadership. On the basis of his studies he has clarified that three influential

factors affect the Indian rural leadership format - firstly, the high social standard of

the family, secondly, the economic status of the family and thirdly, the symptoms of

the individual's personality.

Oscar Levis (1958)4 says on the basis of his study in the north Indian rural life that

the determination of leadership in rural Indian areas depends on wealth, family

3 S.S.Dhillon, Leadership and Groups in South Indian Villages ( Delhi: Planning Commission, 1955) pp.118-24 4 Oscar Lewis, Village Life of North India (Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1958) pp. 128-29

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reputation, age, the symptoms of personality, education, intimacy with the outside

leadership and its influence, the family influence, and many other factors.

Baijnath Singh (1959)5 studied summarily the effects of the rural leadership on the

community development programmes of Uttar-Pradesh in ETAWAH district. He

clarifies that the community development programmes have raised a new young

leadership, which is from the middle class sections of the society. This leadership

group has injected new values and hopes in the rural areas.

Avtar Singh (1963) has studied six villages of the Indian rural areas, regionally.

Under this study he has studied the various systems related to leadership and analysed

them. Respect based leadership, position based leadership and activity based

leadership have been specially and in detailed manner studied and clarified by him.

Herald Alzak (1965)6 made a study which shows that despite the eradication of the

Untouchability legally, the members of the scheduled castes are victims of many

social and economic disabilities. This study was based on fifty educated members of

the scheduled caste simply to analyse the group homogeneity and political changes

and their relationship. It is known from this study that the status of scheduled caste

people has changed with the education and the government service. However still

they face many problems due to poverty. He concludes that with the facilities

provided to the scheduled caste people the caste equations and homogeneity has

increased instead of easing. The new political structure has provided the occasion to

increase personal respect and strength but the members of scheduled castes are kept

aloof from them.

M. Venkatramaiah and G. Ramareddy (1967)7 studied the panchayati-raj system

with reference to Andhra-Pradesh state. Describing the historical background of

panchayati-raj in Andhra-Pradesh in their study, they have also reviewed the

5 Baijnath Singh, The Impact of Community Development Programme on rural leadership park and political Institutions, oxford university press, Madras,1959 6 Herald Alzak, Indias and Untouchables jon De & Comp. Newyork 1965. 7 M. Venkatramaiah and G. Ramareddy , Panchyat Raj In AP, State Chamber Of Panchyat RajHyd.1967

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recommendations of the various committees for the betterment of these institutions.

Apart from this, they have also analysed the structure of the panchayati-raj system in

vogue at that time in Andhra-Pradesh state along with the financial administrative and

political problems of these institutions.

The study undertaken by O.S. Leench (1969)8 tries to understand the changes that

took place in the Jatav Community of Agra district with the independence and new

democratic structure. Using the reference group and role principle Leench tried to

observe the members of the scheduled caste while interacting with other members and

how are adopting which new models in the background. It is known from the study

that the caste is solidifying its status as a vote-bank in the politics. The caste-wise

leadership has now been transferred from the hands of traditional people in the hands

of the people with political influences. The object of political partnership is to fulfill

the caste interests. Whereas the policy of reservation has benefited some low caste

people to the maintenance of the lower status of the scheduled castes is becoming a

vested interest. Educated people are not in a position to provide benefits to their caste-

fellows.

B.S. Bhargava (1975)9 in his study about the local leadership has clarified that new

types of political relations have developed between the important leaders of the

panchayat institutions and the high level leadership under which the local panchayat

level leadership is proving to be useful in the shape of vote bank for the high level

leadership. Thus a new type of politics of bargaining came into currency.

A.R. Darsankar (1979)10 has studied the matters related to panchayat leadership.

Through the study of three-tiered panchayat institutions of a district of Maharashtra

State it was shown that the urbanisation and industrialisation process has reduced the

effect of the caste system but in the rural areas this fact still have influences in these

institutions.

8 O.M.Leanch, The political of Untouchability , Columbia University Press , NewYork,1969 9 B.S. Bhargava, Panchayat Raj System and Political Parties, APH, New Delhi,1979 10 A.R. Darsankar, Leadership in Panchyati Raj, Jaipur ,1979

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D.M. Choudhary (1981)11 has clarified the rising rural leadership. This study is

based on the analysis of primary data collected after survey. The study provides a

right direction to understand the background of rural areas local autonomous

leadership and there methodology.

Izlal Anees Zaidi (1986)12 has studied micro and intensive study of the north Indian

villages for their political overview. The study has analysed the village panchayat

elections while including the political development from independence to 1982.

B.P.S. Bhadoriya and V.B. Dubey (1989)13 have analysed the panchayati raj

institutions of Madhya-Pradesh and Andhra-Pradesh for their financial status,

problems and the possibilities.

Ravi Pratap Singh (1989)14 has analysed the social arousal and their changing life

models of the scheduled caste assembly members.

Manikymba (1989) states that the makers of Panchayati Raj system desired that rural

women should not merely become beneficiaries of development, but more

importantly contributors to it. Analyzing the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee she states

that Mehta Committee considered the condition of the rural woman at length and felt

that they should be assisted to find ways to increase there incomes and improve the

condition of their children. The committee was particular that woman should find

representation in the rural political institutions. Then Ashok Mehta Committee

according to her laid special emphasis on the need to recognize and strengthen

women’s constructive decision-making and managerial role.

R.K. Verma (1991)15 in his study has analysed the rural political leadership with

reference to the influence of the thoughts of the public, process of political

socialisation, politicalisation and development.

11 DM Chaudhary Emrging Rural Leadership in Indian States, Manthan publication ,ND,1981 12 Izlal Anees Zaidi, Politics power & leadership in Rural India,Commanwealth pub., 1988 13 B.P.S. Bhadoriya and V.B. Dubey,Panchyat & Rural Devlopment, Commanwealth pub. 1989 14 Ravi Pratap Singh, Schedule Caste Dispersion, Mittal Publication, ND,1989 15 R.K. Verma, Political Leadership, Amar Prakasan, 1991

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Rampyare (1991)16 has studied the political socialisation of Harijan youths. Under

this study the social-economic status, standard of education, political knowledge,

expression and the process of political socialization have been clarified. In this the

role of the social, economic, political problems and the traditional structural

imbalances, exploitation, injustice of the Harijan Community and their solution by the

Harijan youths have been analysed in detail.

Chakravarty and Bhattacharya (1993)17 have, in their intensive study, based on

political sociology, analysed the leadership groupism and panchayati raj. Under their

study they have critically analysed the rural leadership, while clarifying the

relationship between rural power structure and caste sections vis-a-vis and the rural

politics.

Sushila Kaushik (1993)18 has presented a study on the Panchayati-raj and the

Women. After the seventy-third amendment of the constitution, fulfilling the one-

third positions, reserved for women under constitutional provision this analytical

study is an important and welcome piece of work. Under this study emphasis has been

given on the importance of education and training for the women for local autonomy.

Sushila Kaushik (1993)19 has also edited a book on the subject of women

participation in politics. The book includes some selected papers, which were selected

by the Indian Association of Women’s Studies for their four national conferences,

organised by them. After independence, the role of general awareness among women

in the various local movements has been clarified.

Devaki Jain (1994) in her analysis of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment writes that

the main intention of the policy makers behind this reservation is two-fold: one is the

democratic justice and second is resource utilization (human). She further states that

16 Rampyare, Political Socialization of SC young's, Mittal Pub., 1991 17 Chakravarty and Bhattacharya, Leadership Function & Panchayat Raj, Rawat Pub. Jaipur,1993 18 Sushila Kaushik, Women Participation in Politics, VPH, ND, 1993 19 Sushila Kaushik, Women's & Panchyati Raj, Har Anand Pulication, ND, 1993

15

as the half of the population is women, the country cannot achieve development

without the proper participation of woman.

B.S. Khanna (1994)20 has studied the panchayati-raj in the national perspective very

deeply. The study has presented the working procedure of the village panchayats of

ten different states. The study clearly underlines the advantages of the panchayati-raj

along-with its weakness and possibilities.

Premlata Pujari and Vijaya Kumar Kaushik (1994)21 have edited a study of

Women’s Power in three volumes. This study is based on the various essays and

research papers related to the subject of development of women, including collection

of citations. The first part includes the subjects connected with the position of Indian

women with reference to the development of democracy. The last part contains the

various activities for the development of women and the infra-structure for it. This

edited work clarifies the present status of women.

Shakuntala Sharma (1994)22 has in her book presented a detailed analysis of local

politics and the panchayati-raj. The book includes an analysis with reference to

panchayat elections and the voting behavior of panchayat leadership along with the

development of panchayati-raj. The role of caste, sections, and power has been

explained clarified. This study includes with special importance the outline of rural

leadership along-with the details of rural power structure.

G.D. Bhatt (1994)23 has analysed the rural leadership arising from the three tiered

panchayati-raj system in Pithoragarh district of Uttar-Pradesh. It is clear from the

conclusions arrived at under this study that a new leadership has replaced the

traditional rural political elites, whose caste and community has recorded a massive

change. The studies have reviewed the constant process of active women’s social

changing roles.

20 B.S. Khanna (1994), Panchayat Risien India, Deep N Deep Pub. ND, 1994 21 Premlata Pujari and Vijaya Kumar Kaushik, Women power In India, KanishPub. ND,1994 22 Shakuntala Sharma, Grassroot Politics & Panchyat Raj, Deep n Deep pub. ND, 1994 23 G.D. Bhatt, Imaging leadership Pattern in rural India , MD Pub. ND, 1994

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George Mathew (1994)24 has analysed the system of local autonomy in Karnataka,

Orissa and West Bengal with reference to systematisation of panchayati-raj

movement. Through their study he has also tried to clarify this fact that the judiciary

can discharge an important role in this unit of administration by playing constructive

role. He has recommended that the structural infrastructure of panchayati-raj should

be made more effective. Giving the name of institutional peaceful revolution to the

regular elections of the panchayats, he considers it to be more compulsory for the

public participation and political awareness.

B.M. Verma (1994)25 has studied the rural leadership in the public welfare society.

This study is centred on the social situation and role-exhibition. The panchayat raj and

leadership work, behaviour has been analysed in the background of the socio-political

scenario existing in the rural area.

P.G. Jogdand (1995)26 has edited a book on the Dalit Women of India. There was a

general consensus among the various writers of this book that the Dalit Women’s

section is the section with different problems than the general women section.

T.S. Umman and Abhijit Dutta (1995)27 have studied the panchayats and their

financial arrangements. Under their study of the present panchayat’s financial

arrangements with reference to the seventy third Amendments of the Constitution and

the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commission have also been analysed. This

study also discusses the operational and conceptual problems related to the State

Finance Commission. Related data and the facts have been included which can work

as basis for micro study.

Prabha Apte (1996)28 has written a book on Women in Indian Society. This book

analyses the status of the Indian women right from the Rigvedic period to modern

24 George Mathew, Panchyat Rajfrom Legislation true Movement , Concept Publication ND, 1994 25 B.M. Verma (1994), Rural Leadership in a Welfare Society MPH, ND, 1995 26 P.G. Jogdand, Dalit Women: Issues and Prospective, GPH, ND, 1995 27 T.S. Umman and Abhijit Dutta , Panchyat Raj & Their Finance, CPH, ND,1995 28 Prabha Apte, Women in Indian Society , CPH, ND, 1996

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times. The problems faced by woman and the role of women organisations in the fight

against exploitation in the changing social panorama has also been clarified.

Girish Kumar and Budhdeo Ghosh (1996)29 have studied the West Bengal

panchayat elections in 1993 very deeply. The study includes both of the important

factors in panchayati-raj elections namely the partnership and the operational system

of the panchayati-raj institutions.

Bholanath Ghosh (1996)30 has studied of the social, political, economic,

cultural aspects of the rural life analytically. He has clarified the role of the rural

leadership on their matters and questions.

Bhargava and others (1996)31 write that it was to improve women’s representation

that the policy of reservation was introduced. According to them, reserving seats for

women in the political institutions will, provide them opportunity to raise their

grievances and other related social and economic problems in a formal forum, a

political process necessary to ensure the improvement for all women in all spheres of

life.

Snehalata Panda (1996) in her study of village Panchayat in Orissa found that

women entered into politics due to mandatory provisions of reservation. Most of the

women are from non-political background and entered into politics due to persuasion

by their family members or pressure from the village community. The important

aspect of her study is that the women who reluctantly entered into politics showed

great maturity in outlook, enthusiasm, increasing political consciousness and

increasing perception of their role and responsibility. In another study in 1999, Panda

brought out an interesting point in her field study. There prevails strong caste feelings

and women belonging to upper caste have not come forward to represent the

29 Girish Kumar and Budhdeo Ghosh, WB panchyat Election 1993, A study, CPH, ND, 1996 30 Bholanath Ghosh, Rural Leadership & Development, MP, ND, 1996 31 Bhargava, b.s. & Bhaskar, manu, 1992, women in grassroots democracy-a study of kerala, icssr, ND

18

Panchayat. This has provided an opportunity to the women from the labour and lower

caste to emerge as a potential force in village politics.

Devaki Jain (1996)32 found that usually these are young women of 25-45 years of

age. Almost 20% of the women had previous political experience. The pattern of caste

representation was the same as before the constitutional change, 60% of the elected

representative whether men or women were from dominant caste. Most of the women

elected were illiterate and above all the majority of women declared themselves as

homemakers. She found that women's experience of Panchayat Raj institutions has

transformed many of them. The elements of this transformation include

empowerment, self-confidence, political awareness and affirmation of information.

She argued that women have gained a sense of empowerment by asserting control

over resources, officials and most of all by challenging men further. Women's

empowerment challenged traditional ideas of male authority and supremacy.

Usha Naryan (1996)33, confirms that the main position of 73rd Constitutional

Amendment involves the participation of women as voter, women as members of

political parties, women as candidates, women elected members of PRI’s taking part

in decision making, planning implementation and evaluation. She stressed that

reservation provisions are priority be a guarantee for their empowerment.

Sampa Guha (1996)34 has studied the political participation of women in the

changing society. In this study the changing social and political surroundings during

the present decade with special reference to women folk have been analysed.

S.Govinda Gowda and others (1996)35 in their study of Karnataka women elected

panchayat leader found that the women members of developed taluks were found to

play a better developmental role that their counterparts in the backward taluks. The

32 Jain, Devaki,. 1992, Women: New vision of leadership: a presentation at global forum, Dublin, July 9-12. 33 Narayan, Usha.1996, Women in Panchayats: The Path Ahead, Mainstream, Nov.16. 34 Sampa Guha, Pol. Participation of Women in Changing Society, IIP, ND, 1998 35 Gowada,S and Others,1996,Developmental Role of Women members of Panchayati Raj institutions :A study in Karnataka,Journal of Rural Development,Vol.15(2),pp,249-259,NIRD,Hyd.

19

study reveals that among the socio-economic attributes such as age, education, caste,

annual household income and land holding of women leaders, only education and

annual household income had a highly significant and positive relationship with their

developmental role performance. The finding of the study states that women members

of the Panchayat Raj institutions could play an effective developmental role if they

are given adequate recognition and encouragement.

Rashmi Arun (1997) in a case study of Madhya Pradesh found that in most of the

cases women are housewives, first time entrants into politics and most of them are

illiterate or educated up to primary level.

Rajendra Kumar Singh (1997)36 has made a special and deep study of the rural

political elites, with special reference of the eastern Uttar Pradesh. Highlighting the

panchayat-raj system and rural development’s practical aspects the rural political

atmosphere has also been clarified.

K.C. Vidhya (1997) has studied the women empowerment at the local level

politically. This study was carried out on the basis of the survey on the representatives

of the Women of Banglore’s rural district of Karnataka State. The study clarifies that

though this is the first experience of the women leadership, therefore, their expected

role in the discharge of panchayati raj duties and responsibilities is yet to be seen and

observed.

K.K. Gaur (1997) has presented a comparative picture of the formal and informal

rural leadership. According to him the leadership that comes from the large families

and whose academic and financial level is higher, also maintains good and cordial

relations with the outside leadership. Such leadership is able to solve the problems of

the villagers and possesses the capacity and ability to provide leadership to the

village.

Mahipal (1997) in his study has taken note of the changes that took place from the

past to present times in the panchayat raj system. His chronological and concise

36 Rajendra Kumar Singh, Rural Politics,CPH, ND, 1996

20

analysis describes the present system in great detail. He has also included the specific

specialties of the fifteen states of the country; namely - Andhra Pradesh, Assam,

Bihar, Gujrat, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Himanchal Pradesh, Karnataka,

Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and West Bengal’s Acts.

Ashok Vajpayee (1997)37 has centred his study on panchayati-raj and rural

development. He has studied the various aspects of the panchayati-raj in India along

with the analysis of the institutional format of the local autonomous institutions of

Pakistan, Bangladesh, China, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan and other countries.

M.R. Biju (1997) has presented an analytical study of the new panchayat raj system

with reference to the state of Kerala. In this study he has clarified the panchayati raj

system’s operational financial management, transfer of power, people’s participation

etc. According to him the panchayat raj system could not fulfill the results expected

from it; but it cannot be called unsuccessful as well. Panchayati raj system is actually

only one step towards the democratic process.

R.P. Joshi’s (1997) edited book analyses the various provisions related to the

constitutionalisation of panchayats. It has now received legality among the political

system, but no hurry has been shown in the transfer of financial and administrative

powers as desired by the constitution.

P.C. Jain, Shashi Jain and Sudha Bhatnagar (1997) have made a deep and

intensive study of the women belonging to the scheduled castes. These women

represented the backward sections of the society and the scheduled caste women are

the backward among the backwards. Under this study the methods and processes of

the social change and the scheduled caste women have been analysed with reference

to equi-level person, a family member and member of the society.

O.P.Bohra (1997) states that 73rd Amendment Act mainly aimed at decentralizing the

power and also removing the gender imbalances and bias in the institutions of local

self government .He justifies the rationale to provide reservations for following

37 Ashok Vajpayee, Panchyat raj and Rural Development, SP, ND, 1997

21

reasons, name Shared perception of justice, deprivation and oppression, * Shared

experience of marginalisation vis-a-vis power structure,* Collective empowerment

through representation and democratic process will give them voice, feeling of

solidarity and democratic politics,*Affirmative action will build a critical mass of

local leadership and such groups will be active participants in the strategic decision-

making etc.

K. Jayalakshmi (1997) based on the field study conducted in the Nalgonda district

states that reservation in Panchayat ensures entry for all sections and thus visualizes

as the harbinger of equality and social justice. Further, it is found that reservation has

merely brought in a quantitative change in the gender participation rather than

ushering qualitative developmental efforts.

Jaya Shree Bhatt (1998) has clarified the present status of the women's education

along with inclusion of the ups and downs right from the past to present times - with

reference to education in his study.

K. Sathi (1998) has edited a book on women empowerment. The research papers

included in the book are mainly concerned with the present status of empowerment

and its weakness. Some of them are related to micro-studies and some others are

centered on social and cultural empowerment.

Pravin Seth (1998)38 has in his book on the subject of politics in India and women’s

empowerment has presented the views of women representatives of various political

parties' right from the first general elections to present day and their participation and

analysed them.

Yatindra Singh (1998)39 has undertaken a study on the panchayat-raj system in

Madhya Pradesh. Under this study the problems of the various parties of the

panchayat-raj system has been clarified and their probabilities have been analysed

chronologically.

38 Pravin Seth, Women Empowerment and Politics in India, Karnawati Publication, Ahemdabad, 1998. 39 Yatindra Singh Sisodiya, Panchayati Raj, Rawat publication, ND 2000 pP120-121

22

Sandeep Joshi (1998) has studied the financial status of panchayats with special

reference to Madhya Pradesh. Under this study the sub-sections of finances have been

analysed and suggestions have been made regarding the capabilities of panchayats.

Shirin Rai (2000)40 argues that 73rd Constitutional Amendment has opened up the

process of democratizing the local bodies with place for women what actually our

policy makers wanted.

Bidyut Mohanty’s (2000)41 recent study on the impact of 73rd Amendment in Orissa

through field experience analyses that about 80-90% of women attend the Panchayat

meetings regularly. Given the seen number, one might conclude that the democracy

has become participatory than before at least at the grassroot level. In the study of

taking interview of elected women leaders from Orissa, he observed that the socio-

economic background of these women showed that majority of them come from the

lower income group particularly at the village Panchayat level. The micro studies also

show that the working culture of the Panchayats have changed because of the

presence of the women. Finally, a part of the increase of the female literacy rate can

be attributed to the presence of the women in Panchayat and their willingness to get

educated. It is also found that the standard of political institution at the grassroot level

has not been lowered because of women reservation and to some extent the

development process has become engendered. It is alleged that since many of the

women are first timers and are illiterate, they depend upon their men folk for

conducting the panchayat activities first; the husbands or other male representatives

will shield them from the panchayat secretary, B.D.O if they try to harass the women.

In fact, some of the state governments have passed a rule that their male relatives

could accompany the women elected representative to the Panchayats. This is because

in some cases, the secretary of the Panchayat tried to implicate the inexperienced

40 Rai, Shirin, 2000, looking to the future: Panchayat, women’s Representation and Deliberation politics, A paper presented in women and Panchyat Raj institution, April 8-27. 41 Mohanty bidyut,2002,women and political empowerment, ISS, New Delhi

23

women by asking them to sign on blank cheques etc. Some of the women chiefs went

to jail because of those acts. An interesting finding came out from the above field

experience. Even if women representatives depend on relatives, the power relations

between husband and wife has already changed due to the reservation for women, the

woman's husband gets a chance to come to the public sphere because of the wife and

particularly no longer monolithic structure is seen in family relations. Studies point

out the emergence of proxy women in Panchayats where the husbands or brothers

look after her official activities. Mohanty however states that the first one or two

years of the tenure, the proxy women are seen. Gradually, they become independent

and so finally Mohanty concludes that 73rd Amendment has an empowering impact on

women.

Nirmala Buch (2000)42 states that earlier studies of women representatives in

panchayat before the 73rd amendment noted the major presence of women from the

dominant sections e.g. from Marathas and families owning more than twenty acres of

land in Maharastra and lingyats and Karnataka. But the profile of the new women in

post 73rd Amendment panchayats showed that majority were illiterate and large

percentages were from families in the lower socio-economic strata. They were

comparatively younger than the earlier entrants and were predominantly first

generation entrants to the public political life. She further expressed that a study of

twelve all women panchayats in Maharastra documented male female member's

support for women coming into panchayats, but such support was tentative and

interspersed with typical anxieties expressed in such comments as 'who will make the

chapattis etc.

G. Palanthurai (2001) in his study of Tamilnadu observed that women have come to

positions in the local bodies as provisions have been made in the constitution. The

outlook of the society towards the women has started changing. Author from his

42 Buch, Nirmala, 200, Panchaytis and women, Status of Panchayati Raj in the States and Union Territories of India, 2000, Institute of Social Science.

24

experience suggests that women need orientation, sensitization, capacity building, and

information and counseling continuously through organizations. The ongoing

experiments and experiences suggest that periodical training; orientation and

sensitization can help the women leaders to perform the assigned role in a better way.

He argues that the Govt. will respond to the needs of these women leaders only when

social organization and groups support them.

Dr. Indira Mishra (2005) in his book stated that the bottom line is that micro-finance

is the new mantra for poor women. It is a better alternative for the economic

development because it is only through micro-finance that they can attain economic

well being with dignity.

1.4 Studies Related to Women Empowerment:-

The World Bank’s Empowerment and Poverty Reduction: A Sourcebook defines

empowerment in its broadest sense as the “expansion of freedom of choice and

action”. Empowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to

think, behaves, take action and control work in an autonomous way. It is the state of

feeling of the self-empowered to take control of one’s own destiny. It includes both

control over resources (Physical, Human, Intellectual and Financial) and over

ideology (Belief, Values and Attitudes) (Batliwala, 1994).

The feminist empowerment paradigm did not originate as a Northern imposition, but

is firmly rooted in the development of some of the earliest micro-finance programmes

in the South, including SEWA in India. It currently underlies the gender policies of

many NGOs and the perspectives of various consultants and researchers looking at

gender impact of micro-finance programmes (e.g. Chen 1996, Johnson1997).

Based on participatory principles to build up incremental knowledge of industries to

enable women to develop their strategies for change (Chen, 1996), we find a lot of

literature and studies.

25

(Kabeer 1998)43 has made a deep and intensive study of micro-credit system in

Bangladesh and women. He states that in some contexts women may be seeking to

increase their influence within joint decision-making processes rather than

independent control over income.

According to Sen (1990) and Kandiyoti (1999)44 neither of these outcomes can be

assumed. Women’s perceptions of value and self-worth are not necessarily translated

into actual well-being, benefits or change in gender relations in the household.

Worryingly in response to women’s increased (but still low) income, evidence

indicates that men may be withdrawing more of their own contribution for their own

luxury expenditure.

Men are often very enthusiastic about women’s credit and thrift programmes and

other income generation out programmes, for this reason because their wives no

longer ‘nag’ them for money (Mayoux 1999).

Lakshman, 1996 argues that changes at the individual, household and community

levels are interlinked and that individual women who gain respect in their households

then act as role models for others leading to a wider process of change in community

perceptions and male willingness to accept change.

(Noponen 1990; Rahman 1999) Find that in most programmes there is little attempt

to link micro-finance with wider social and political activity. In the absence of

specific measures to encourage this there is little evidence of any significant

contribution of micro-finance. Micro-finance groups may put severe strains on

women's existing networks if repayment becomes a problem.

43 Kabeer, Naila. (1998). "Money can't Buy Me Love : Re-evalutiong Gender, Credit and Empowerment in Rural Bangladesh",IDS Discussion paper No. 363, Sussex.

43 Sen, Amarty (1999) Development as Freedom. New York: Alfred A.knopf. P. 326.

26

Basely and Coate (1995)- Experiences of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh have shown

that availability of collateral free tiny loans for income generating activities for poor

have a significant impact on the lives of poor families.

Different theoretical results by Ghatak and Guinnane (1999) had shown that in

closed communities where group members are known to each other, group lending

promotes screening, monitoring, state verification and enforcement of repayments.

Ghatak (1999) had shown that in closed village communities in-group formation

stage, the members could choose safer partners that reduce their effective cost of

borrowing and improve rate of repayments of loans to avoid the social sanction of the

peer group (Yunus2004).

A study by Pitt and Khandekar (1998)45 considered the impact of Grameen Bank

and two other group-based micro credit programmes in Bangladesh on labor supply,

schooling, household expenditure and assets. They found that the programme credit

has larger positive impact on the behaviour of poor if the borrowers are women rather

than men.

Coleman (1999) in a study considered the impact of group lending programmes in

North East Thailand. This survey had shown that the impact of village banks that

provide group-loans in villages is insignificant on physical assets, savings,

productions, and productive expenditures and on other variables. However, it has

positive impact on women’s high interest debt because a number of members had

fallen into vicious circle of debt from moneylenders in order to repay their loans. It

has positive significant impact on women’s lending out with interest because some

members engaged in arbitrage, borrowing from village bank at low interest and then

lending out money at mark up. 45 Pitt and khandker, S. (1995) Household and intrahouschold impects of the grameen bank and similar targatd

credit programs in Bangladesh. paper presented at workshop on credit programs for the poor household and

intrahousehold impact and program sustainability by Education and social policy Department Washington, DC

and Bangladesh Institute of Development studies, Dhaka. PP. 342-356

27

There have been several studies on the working of SHGs in different parts of India,

particularly A.P., Gujarat, M.P., Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. A study by

NABARD46 covering 150 SHG member households from 30 SHGs across 03

Districts, showed many positive results on the impact of participation of rural poor in

the SHGs. It shows that there have been perceptible and wholesome changes in the

living standards of SHG members in terms of ownership of assets, borrowing

capacities, income generating activities, income levels and increase in savings. It

indicates that the average annual saving per household registered an increase over

three-fold (NABARD, 2002).

A study by Ahlin and Townsend (2003) considered the presence of joint liability

loans versus individual loans on the basis of data gathered from Thailand. Their study

showed that the wealth level; showed a ‘U’ shaped relationship with group loans, and

it was also found that the lower the probability of success of the project, higher is the

likelihood of taking a group loan.

As can be seen from these studies, though women comprise about half of the

population they have been traditionally subjected to discriminatory social ethos

resulting in denial of equality of status and opportunities in social, economic and

political spheres. Two decades after the historic Amendment there is need to go back

to the history and analyse the various reasons for the government as why it has not

succeeded completely to give fair space to women. Though previous studies and

analysis have reflected on various issues of participation and development at the grass

root level, they still do not touch many issues. It is undoubtedly true that the over all

development of a nation requires maximum utilisation of human resources,

particularly women without any discrimination. A more developed society is a more

participative one. So the participation of women in political process is a major step

46 NABARD. (2002). Rural Credit and NABARD, Mumbai : NABARD PP.133-136

28

towards inclusive politics and this has recently been accelerated through the vehicle of

Self Help Groups.

The present study is related to the women leadership and empowerment in the rural

areas, with particular reference to the Chhattisgarh State- a state newly born just a

decade ago- a state which is marching ahead to achieve overall socio-economic

development at par with the many developed States of the country despite its

geographical and several other inherited problems- a State which has not looked back

since and one of the most distinguishing feature evident in this march is the key role

being played by more than a million women organized into more than a lakh vibrant

and dynamic Self-help groups.

Clearly it can be said that through the mechanism of Panchayati raj system, women

are getting opportunities for leadership and through this they are now ready to fight

against the inequalities, injustice and exploitation against themselves. Along with this

women have also played an important part in the development of the society

particularly as major social change agents.

1.5 Objective of the Study:

Present study is a sociological and economic study of women leadership in rural areas

of Chhattisgarh state. The women leadership in Chhattisgarh has been deeply studied

particularly after the formation of the Chhattisgarh State. The following objectives

have been determined for the present study:-

1. To ascertain the socio-cultural background of the respondents under study.

2. To study the family and social coordination of respondents under study.

3. To ascertain the level of women leadership in panchayat raj system.

4. To ascertain the status of women leadership in the political parties.

5. To study the role-played by Women through self-help-groups in the socio-

political and economic scenario of the rural areas- particularly as a vehicle of

change.

29

1.6 Hypothesis

The Hypothesis is as follows:

1. Rise of Women Leadership in rural areas will increase the pace of holistic

development in the state.

2. If Women are endowed with power in all the fields, then, not only the society

will be benefited but also the entire democratic system will benefit.

3. Whether MCS (Self-Help-Groups) has proved beneficial for the Rural

Empowerment of women in the socio- economic context or not.

1.7 Research Methodology

For the research work scientific method of study has been applied. A research design

has been created for the fulfillment of the objective. The study is based on primary

and secondary data. The data has been classified & analyzed statistically after which it

has been evaluated.

1.7.1 Sampling Design:

Relevant information has been collected with the help of pre-designed schedules from

250 members of SHGs most of whom are also the beneficiaries of SGSY, Nawa-

Anjor and various other Government programmes including that of Chhattisgarh

Mahila Kosh (CMK) of the selected 04 districts of Raipur division of Chhattisgarh

state. For this purpose a list of respondents in randomly selected villages was prepared

and they have been interviewed by the researcher both personally as well as through a

questionnaire method. Respondents have been selected through purposive sampling.

1.7.2 Source of Data:

The data for study is both primary and secondary data. For primary data collection

respondents have been approached whose list is annexed.

30

1.7.3 Primary Data

Data collected by the researcher himself for the purpose of research is primary data.

It directly benefits the research problem.

1.7.4 Secondary Data

Data which has already been collected and analyzed by someone else is secondary

data. It means data that has already been collected and available.

In order to collect data from secondary sources the following sources of data

collection have been used-

• Articles and Magazines and Manuals of Various Government departments.

• Books, Reports and Journals.

• Project Reports of RMK and CMK.

• Websites.

1.7.5 Researcher Instrument

This research design is based on descriptive research with focus on discovery of ideas,

themes and models. It is a primary investigation which does not have rigid design

because researcher gets engaged in a descriptive study.

After the collection of data, it has been analyzed to find out the various points and

issues to be worked on. These points are further analyzed in detail and

rearranged according to the requirement so that the desired results can be obtained.

1.7.6 Tools and Techniques of analysis

Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data

are transformed into symbols that can be tabulated and counted.

Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding

the stage is ready for tabulation.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in

the form of tables.

31

Bar, Pie, Line & chart is a part of technical procedure to differentiate different

groups and show the comparison among different variables.

1.7.7 Analysis of Data

Various statistical methods such as comparative percentage, diagrams and bar charts

also used to analyze the available data.

1.7.8 Case study

The loans granted by different Government, Non-Government Organizations,

Cooperative Societies, Banks, Financial Institutions etc. to SHGs in various districts,

utilization of these loans, loan repayments and the consequent micro-enterprise

activities have been scrutinized in details and few selected case-studies out of the

many have also been annexed as part of the research work.

1.8 Chhattisgarh: An Overview

Chhattisgarh is one of the youngest States of the Indian union. Constituted on 1st

November 2000, Chhattisgarh is located in the heart of India and shares its borders

with six States of the country: Uttar Pradesh to the north, Jharkhand to the north-east,

Orissa to the east, Madhya Pradesh to the west and north-west, Maharashtra to the

south-west and Andhra Pradesh to the south-east. The geographical area of the State

covers over 135,000 square kilometers and the total population in 2001was

20,833,803 (2.08 crores).

Chhattisgarh is situated between 17º 43' North to 24º 5' North Latitude and 80º 15'

East to 84º 20' East Longitude. (The Tropic of Cancer runs through the State). The

climate of Chhattisgarh is mainly tropical, humid and sub-humid. The Mahanadi is the

principal river of the State. The other major rivers are - Sheonath, Hadeo, Mand, Eeb,

Pairi, Jonk, Kelo Udanti, Indrawati, Arpa and Maniyari. (Map of Chhattisgarh)47

47 www.mapsofindia.com , last updated on 10th December 2009

32

33

1.8.1 Regional Characteristics

Chhattisgarh can be divided into three distinct regions:

Northern region: To the north lie dense forests, hills and water reservoirs. The

districts that are part of this region are Korea, Surguja, Jashpur, Raigarh, and Korba.

These districts have similar geographical, climatic and cultural conditions. Many of

the indigenous tribes like the Paharikorba and the Pando live in these areas. Life here

is governed by tribal customs, culture and traditions.

In the rural areas of the region, people are dependent largely on agriculture and minor

forest produce. Due to the available natural resources, the level of migration from this

region is comparatively limited. There are no urban centers except Korba and

Ambikapur. Korba is the largest town, and the limited industry is concentrated here.

There are coalmines in Surguja and Korea districts.

Central plains region: The districts that fall in the central plains region are Raipur,

Bilaspur, Janjgir-Champa, Kabirdham, Rajnandgaon, Durg, Dhamtari and

Mahasamund, The river Mahanadi flows through the area and meets the ever-

increasing water requirement of the region, for irrigation and domestic use. The

central plains of Chhattisgarh are known as the 'rice bowl' of Central India, because of

the large number of indigenous varieties of rice that are grown here. Raipur, Bhilai

and Durg are well known urban centres with large steel plant and various other

industries. There are a large number of rural artisans in this region, and the silk

weavers of Janjgir-Champa are well known all over the country.

The region is densely populated. Raipur and Durg account for almost half the total

urban population of Chhattisgarh. The other districts, apart from Bilaspur and

Rajnandgaon, have less than six percent of the urban population.

Southern region: The southern region of Chhattisgarh is known for its varied and

rich forests, its diverse tribal population and unique culture. The districts in this

region are Kanker, Bastar and Dantewada. The States of Maharashtra, Andhra

34

Pradesh and Orissa border these districts. The people of the region are dependent on

traditional agriculture and forest produces for their livelihood. The famous Bailadila

mines represent the limited industry in the region. Recently two new districts of

Bijapur nad Narayanpur have been carved out to facilitate better development

accessibility of the administration into the remote areas and to face the challenges of

left wing extremism. Very recently, on 15th August 2011, the State Government has

announced to create 9 more districts for better administration.

1.8.2 Population

The total population of the State according to the 2001 Census is 2.08 crore. Of this,

80 percent of the people live in rural areas and 20 percent live in urban areas. The

State has a low density of population i.e. 151 persons per square kilometer. The sex

ratio for the State is 989 females per 1,000 males. In rural Chhattisgrah, however,

there are more women than men, and the ratio is 1,004 women per 1,000 men, while

in urban Chhattisgarh the ratio is 932 women per 1,000 men. Rajnandgaon (1,023

women per 1,000 men) and Dantewada (1,016 women per 1,000 men) districts have

the highest sex ratios in the State.

Almost a third of the population belongs to Scheduled Tribes and about 11.61 percent

of the population is listed as Scheduled Castes. Other communities including a large

number of people belonging to the Backward Classes (almost 45%) constitute the rest

of the population. The bulk of its people are concentrated in the central plains region,

while the northern and the southern regions have a considerably lower density of

population.

Urban-Rural Population of Chhattisgarh

Population Total Urban Rural

Male 10,474,218 2,166,775 8,307,443

Female 10,359,585 2,018,972 8,340,613

Total 20,833,803 4,185,747 16,648,056

35

Population According to Category

Category Percent

Scheduled Castes 11.61

Scheduled Tribes 31.80

Other communities including Backward Classes 56.59

The Main Regions and the People of Chhattisgarh

Districts Demographically dominant

people

Northern region Korea, Surguja, Jashpur,

Raigarh and parts of Bilaspur,

Korba and Kabirdham

Scheduled Tribes and

Backward Classes

Plains of

Chhattisgarh

Raipur, Durg, Mahasamund,

Rajnandgaon, Dhamtari,

Janjgir-Champa and parts of

Bilaspur district

Backward Classes

Sorthern region UttarBastar-Kanker, Bastar and

Dakshin Bastar-Dantewada

Scheduled Tribes and

Backward Classes

Different Regions and the Tribes that Inhabit them

Area District Major tribes that inhabit the

area

Primitive tribes

of Chhattisgarh

Northern

region

Surguja, Korea,

Jashpur, Raigarh

Kanwar, Oraon, Nagesia,

Korwa, Saunta, Saur,

Sawar, Baiga, Agaria, Kol,

Dhanwar, Biyar, Binjhwar,

Manjhwar, Bharia, Bhaina,

Majhi, Khairwar, Kharia

and Gond

Kamar, Bison

horn Maria,

Korws, Birhor,

Baiga

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Central

region

Durg, Rajnandgoan,

Kabirdham,Korba,

Bilsapur, Mahasamund,

Janjgir-Champa,

Raipur, Dhamtari

Gond, Baiga, Kamar,

Oraon, Kol, Binjhwar,

Dhanwar, Kanwar, Halba,

Pardhi, Bahelia, Bhunjia,

Agariya, Kondh, Bhaina,

Majhi, Kanwar, Manjhwar,

Sonr, Saur gadaba, Sawar,

Saunta

Southern

region

Uttar Bastar Kanker,

Bastar and Dakshin

Bastar Dantewada

Halba, Gadaba, Parchi,

Kamar,Bhattra, Dhurwa,

Muria, Maria, Bison horn

Maria, Dandami Maria

Gond, Raj Gond, Dorla,

Hill Maria, Pardhan, Mudia

Languages Spoken in Chhattisgarh

Region Language/dialect

Sarguja, Korea Surgujiya, Kurukh, Korwa, Hindi

Jashpur, Raigarh Chhattisgarhi, Kurukh, Gondi, Hindi

Bilaspur, Korba, Janjgir-Champa, Raipur,

Durg, Rajnandgaon and Kabirdham,

Mahasamund

Chhattisgarhi, Kurukh, Gondi, Hindi,

Munda

Dhamtari, North Bastar-Kanker, Bastar

and South Bastar-Dantewada

Chhattisgarhi, Halbi, Bhattri, Gondi,

Hindi, Bastari, Aboojhmadi,

Dandamimadi, Dorli, Muria, Dhurvi,

Koytoor

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Sex Ratio in Chhattisgarh

Name of the District Sex Ratio

Rural Urban Total

Korea 971 890 946

Surguja 977 904 972

Jashpur 1003 919 999

Raigarh 1003 941 994

Korba 992 917 964

Janjgir-Champa 1005 941 998

Bilaspur 984 932 971

Kabirdham 1008 935 1002

Rajnandgaon 1034 976 1023

Durg 1016 929 982

Raipur 1004 929 980

Mahasamund 1026 961 1018

Dhamtari 1006 991 1004

Kanker 1007 976 1005

Bastar 1017 961 1011

Dantewada 1025 904 1016

State 1004 932 989

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Fifth Schedule Areas in Chhattisgarh

Districts completely under the Fifth

Schedule

Districts partially covered by the Fifth

Schedule

1. Korea 1. Raigarh

2. Surguja 2. Bilaspur

3. Korba 3. Raipur

4. Jashpur 4. Dhamtari

5. Kanker 5. Rajnandgaon

6. Bastar 6. Durg

7. Dantewada

* Source of Data Human Development Report Govt. Of Chhattisgarh

1.8.3 Culture

Chhattisgarh enjoys a unique culture, inhabited by a number of tribes and

communities, each with its district identity and way of life. In spite of a number of

tribes, its people share certain commonalities and a philosophy which is central to

many tribal cultures; the veneration of natural resources - water, forests and land on

which life is dependent - a regard for community values and traditions, a practical

recognition of the interdependence between different communities and people, and a

refreshing spirit.

Richly endowed with resources like forests and minerals (diamonds, gold, iron-ore,

coal, corundum, bauxite, dolomite, lime, tin and granite to name a few), the people

hold the earth and its forests in high regard and esteem. Over centuries, they have

evolved a way of life, which while dependent on these resources uses them in a

sustainable way. Indigenous knowledge regarding the growing of rice and herbal

medicines is well developed but is disappearing fast due to the influx of modern

scientific practices and medicines as well as the absence of any documentation of

these valuable systems.

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1.8.4 Women and Livelihood

Women make up a significant proportion of the agricultural work force in the state.

Many agricultural operations are based exclusively or largely on the physical labour

of women. These include sowing and replanting. Women are also responsible for seed

selection and storage and have specialized knowledge about indigenous crop varieties.

They are not only a source of labour, but also repositories of knowledge for the

society.

Women work is not confined to paddy transplanting and agriculture. In the gathering

and processing of forest produce, collecting firewood and fetching water, the burden

falls on the women. They tend their domesticated animals, and maintain the baadees

where vegetables are grown. They run their homes, help the men in repairing roofs

and walls, keep the floor and house clean and are responsible for the decorative and

aesthetic aspects of their homes.

Despite this, the role of women does not find adequate expression in the rural life. By

and large they are perceived in a supporting and supplementary role. They find

mention in activities like collecting forest produce, sundry labour in agriculture and

making snacks like papads and pickles, often in the context of Government

programmes that have brought many of these activities to women's groups. Their

contribution as primary forest produce collectors and as major workers in agriculture,

as well as to the economy of the State has not been recorded.

This is a pointer to the prevailing social conditions in which women remain invisible,

even in Chhattisgarh, which has a substantial tribal population, a high sex ratio, high

girl child enrolment in schools and the near absence of practices such as purdah,

dowry and obvious discrimination against the girl child. However the scenario is

changing fast with the women asserting their place through the Self Help Groups.

The Reports indicate that women get lower wages, even for the same work, than men.

The differential ranges from 25 percent to as much as 40 percent. However the

government has also so called peoples representative are by and large silent on issues

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of inequality of wages, property rights, role in decision-making, ownership of

produce, and only mention of the role of women in livelihoods.

Despite the fact that tribal societies are essentially tolerant and equitable, the struggle

for women to be visible, heard and acknowledged is as pertinent in Chhattisgarh as in

any other part of India.

1.8.5 Study Area:

Present study is based on 04 Districts of Raipur division of Chhattisgarh state. These

districts are Raipur, Durg, Rajnandgaon and Kabirdham. While Raipur and Durg

Districts are predominantly urban/developed districts, Rajnanadgoan and Kabirdham

are full of forests, tribal population (even primitive tribes of BAIGAS inhabit in

Kabirdham). Raipur is the new capital city of the state. Agriculture is the main

occupation of the people in these districts and the purpose for selecting these districts

for the study is to get a representative sample - urban and rural, tribal and non-tribal

and plains as well as forest areas- of the whole state.

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