chapter 2 atoms, molecules, and ions - wikispacesapchemsummer.wikispaces.com/file/view/chapter...
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![Page 1: Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions - Wikispacesapchemsummer.wikispaces.com/file/view/Chapter 02.pdf/433216328... · Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Atomic Theory](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022052608/5ab975f67f8b9ad5338dfbae/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College Cottleville, MO
Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;
and Bruce E. Bursten
![Page 2: Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions - Wikispacesapchemsummer.wikispaces.com/file/view/Chapter 02.pdf/433216328... · Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Atomic Theory](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022052608/5ab975f67f8b9ad5338dfbae/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Atomic Theory of Matter
The theory that atoms are the fundamental
building blocks of matter reemerged in the early
19th century, championed by John Dalton.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Dalton's Postulates
Each element is composed of extremely small
particles called atoms.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Dalton's Postulates
All atoms of a given element are identical to one
another in mass and other properties, but the
atoms of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Dalton's Postulates
Atoms of an element are not
changed into atoms of a different
element by chemical reactions;
atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Dalton’s Postulates
Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Law of Constant Composition Joseph Proust (1754–1826)
• This is also known as the law of definite
proportions.
• It states that the elemental composition
of a pure substance never varies.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Law of Conservation of Mass
The total mass of substances present at
the end of a chemical process is the
same as the mass of substances
present before the process took place.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Electron
• Streams of negatively charged particles were
found to emanate from cathode tubes.
• J. J. Thompson is credited with their
discovery (1897).
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Electron
Thompson measured the charge/mass ratio
of the electron to be 1.76 108 coulombs/g.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Once the charge/mass
ratio of the electron
was known,
determination of either
the charge or the mass
of an electron would
yield the other.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Robert Millikan
(University of Chicago)
determined the charge
on the electron in
1909.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the spontaneous
emission of radiation by an atom.
• It was first observed by Henri
Becquerel.
• Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
particles
particles
rays
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Atom, circa 1900
• The prevailing theory
was that of the “plum
pudding” model, put
forward by Thompson.
• It featured a positive
sphere of matter with
negative electrons
imbedded in it.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Discovery of the Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford
shot particles at a
thin sheet of gold foil
and observed the
pattern of scatter of
the particles.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Nuclear Atom
Since some particles
were deflected at
large angles,
Thompson’s model
could not be correct.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons around the outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume of the atom is empty space.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Other Subatomic Particles
• Protons were discovered by Rutherford
in 1919.
• Neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Subatomic Particles
• Protons and electrons are the only particles that
have a charge.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass.
• The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Symbols of Elements
Elements are symbolized by one or two
letters.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Atomic Number
All atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons:
The atomic number (Z)
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom in atomic mass units
(amu) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
11
6 C 12
6 C 13
6 C 14
6 C
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Atomic Mass
Atomic and
molecular masses
can be measured
with great accuracy
with a mass
spectrometer.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Average Mass
• Because in the real world we use large
amounts of atoms and molecules, we
use average masses in calculations.
• Average mass is calculated from the
isotopes of an element weighted by
their relative abundances.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Periodic Table
• It is a systematic
catalog of the
elements.
• Elements are
arranged in order
of atomic number.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Periodicity
When one looks at the chemical properties of
elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Periodic Table
• The rows on the
periodic chart are
periods.
• Columns are groups.
• Elements in the same
group have similar
chemical properties.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Groups
These five groups are known by their names.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Periodic Table
Nonmetals are
on the right
side of the
periodic table
(with the
exception of
H).
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Periodic Table
Metalloids
border the
stair-step line
(with the
exception of
Al, Po, and
At).
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Periodic Table
Metals are
on the left
side of the
chart.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right
of the symbol of an
element tells the number
of atoms of that element
in one molecule of the
compound.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chemical Formulas
Molecular compounds
are composed of
molecules and almost
always contain only
nonmetals.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Diatomic Molecules
These seven elements occur naturally as
molecules containing two atoms.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Types of Formulas
• Empirical formulas give the lowest
whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact
number of atoms of each element in a
compound.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Types of Formulas
• Structural formulas show the
order in which atoms are
bonded.
• Perspective drawings also
show the three-dimensional
array of atoms in a
compound.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Ions
• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they
become ions.
– Cations are positive and are formed by elements
on the left side of the periodic chart.
– Anions are negative and are formed by elements
on the right side of the periodic chart.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are
generally formed between metals and
nonmetals.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Writing Formulas
• Because compounds are electrically neutral,
one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
factor.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Common Cations
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Common Anions
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Inorganic Nomenclature
• Write the name of the cation.
• If the anion is an element, change its
ending to -ide; if the anion is a
polyatomic ion, simply write the name of
the polyatomic ion.
• If the cation can have more than one
possible charge, write the charge as a
Roman numeral in parentheses.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• When there are two oxyanions involving
the same element:
– The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
• NO2− : nitrite; SO3
2− : sulfite
– The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO3− : nitrate; SO4
2− : sulfate
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
– ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.
– ClO3− : chlorate
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo-
and ends in -ite.
– ClO− : hypochlorite
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
– ClO4− : perchlorate
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid.
– HClO: hypochlorous
acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO4: perchloric acid
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• The less electronegative atom is usually listed first.
• A prefix is used to denote the number of atoms of each element in the compound (mono- is not used on the first element listed, however) .
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• The ending on the more
electronegative element
is changed to -ide.
– CO2: carbon dioxide
– CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of the element begins with a vowel, the two successive vowels are often elided into one.
N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds
• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.
• Organic chemistry has its own system of
nomenclature.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds
The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds
containing only carbon and hydrogen) are
alkanes.
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds
The first part of the names above correspond
to the number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2,
prop- = 3, etc.).
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Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds
• When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with
something else (a functional group, like -OH in
the compounds above), the name is derived from
the name of the alkane.
• The ending denotes the type of compound.
– An alcohol ends in -ol.