Chapter 2

Paradigms, Theory, And Research

Traditional Model of ScienceThree main elements in the traditional model of science:

1. Theory

2. Operationalization

3. Observation

Hypothesis• A specified testable expectation about

empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition.

• An expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory.

• A statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct.

Operationalization• Developing operational definitions or

specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.• Quantitative: How to agree upon

measuring income in a survey• Qualitative: How to agree upon the

proper countries to compare

Operational Definition• The concrete and specific definition of

something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized.• Quantitative: Party Identification will be

measured on a seven-point scale• Qualitative: Only comparing other

countries in Africa will be necessary

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning• Induction starts from observed data and

develops a generalization which explains the relationships between the objects observed.

• In deductive reasoning one starts from a general law and applies it to a particular instance.

Null Hypothesis• In connection with hypothesis testing and

tests of statistical significance, that hypothesis that suggests there is no relationship among the variables under study.

• You may conclude that the variables are related after having statistically rejected the null hypothesis.

Research Ethics and Theory• Researchers must guard against letting

their choice of theory or paradigms bias their research results.

• The collective nature of social research offers protection against biased research findings.

Paradigms• A model or framework for observation and

understanding, which shapes what we see and how we understand it.

• The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the interactionist paradigm causes us to see it differently.

• We can see new ways of seeing and explaining things when we step outside our paradigm.

Macrotheory

• A theory aimed at understanding the “big picture” of institutions, whole societies and the interactions among societies.

• Karl Marx’s examination of the class struggle is an example of macrotheory.

Microtheory• A theory aimed at understanding social

life at the level of individuals and their interactions.

• Explaining how the play behavior of girls differs from that of boys is an example of microtheory.

Positvism

• Comte’s view that science would replace religion and metaphysics by basing knowledge on observations.

• Comte coined positivism, in contrast to what he regarded as negative elements in the Enlightenment.

Conflict

• Marx suggested social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict: • Attempt to dominate others.• Attempt to avoid domination.

Symbolic Interactionism • Interactions revolve around individuals

reaching understanding through language and other systems.

• Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life.

Ethnomethodology

• People are continuously trying to make sense of the life they experience.

• One technique is to break the rules and violate people’s expectations.

Structural Functionalism

• A social entity, such as an organization, can be viewed as an organism.

• A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

• This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of society.

Feminism

• Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to the rest of social organization.

• Draws attention to the oppression of women in many societies, and sheds light on all kinds of oppression.

Interest Convergence• The thesis that majority group members

will only support the interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group.

Asch Experiment• Goal was to determine whether subjects

would be swayed by the pressure to go along with an incorrect answer.

• Initial experiments found that a little over 1/3 of subjects were.