Chapter 2Public Relations Contested and

Ethically Challenged

Why a Concern for Ethics?PR and the Media

Defining EthicsEthical Perspectives

Five Pillars• Veracity (tell the truth).• Non-maleficence (do no harm, including

demonstrating respect for others).• Beneficence (do good; when choosing between

alternatives, select the one that will do the most good for the public, not just the one that would enhance your image).

• Confidentiality (respect privacy).• Fairness (be fair and socially responsible; try to

respect all parties involved in an issue).

Why Concern over Ethics in PR?

• PR is strategic communication that involves persuasion.

• Must be cautious with persuasion, it can be abused.

• Critics warn the rich and powerful have an unfair advantage in PR.

Goals

• Clarify ethical concerns with PR.• Explain how field is addressing ethical

concerns.• Stimulate thinking about ethics:– How PR is portrayed in media– Special obligations of PR– Different ethical perspectives– Role of codes of ethics

Media Portrayals of Public Relations

• The dominant media portrayal of PR is negative.

• PR is hype and style over substance.• PR is dishonest and ethically challenged.

PR Guilt linked to Specific Cases

• A few, high-profile unethical cases present unbalanced view of PR.

• Front groups– Hill and Knowlton “Citizens for a Free Kuwait” – American Farmers for the Advancement and

Conservation of Technology• Cause marketing fund raising– Starbucks “Ethos Water Fund” – Dell and Red Campaign

PR and Journalists

• Love-hate relationship, need one another but there is tension.

• Video News Release (VNR) captures tension– Created by PR people and sent to stations– VNR are appealing, high quality and low cost– Offers story a station could not afford to cover– Journalists use but rarely attribute to PR

How Media use Term PR

• “It’s just PR”• “PR maneuvers” • “PR ploy”None are flattering references for PR.Back to style over substance.

Ethical Issues in the Practice of Public Relations

• Bias against PR due to corporate connections.• Fear that PR exercises great influence in

society.

Ethical Issues in the Practice of Public Relations

• PR is public communication.• PR and persuasion.• PR and decision making.

Public Communication and Public Relations

• Public communicators have special responsibilities to balance the needs of society with the needs of clients. – Rooted in ancient Greek view of rhetorical

tradition– More recently in discussion of public sphere

• “The power to influence society means that public relations holds enormous responsibility to be ethical” (Bowen, 2005a, p. 294).

Ethical Issues in the Practice of Public Relations

• PR people are boundary spanners.– Span the organization and its constituents

• PR should serve the public interest but what constitutes the public interest is debatable.

Persuasion and Public Relations

• Some dislike featuring persuasion in PR.• Consider persuasion unethical and

manipulative.• Persuasion can lead to propaganda.• Persuasion, as a form of strategic

communication, can be done in an open, authentic way.

• Advocacy is one of PRSA’s professional values.

Persuasion and Public Relations

• Persuasion can benefit the organization.• Persuasion can benefit society.• Persuasion can be of mutual benefit to

“persuader and those being persuaded” (Parson, 2004, p. 107).

Decision Making and Public Relations

• PR is not always part of organizational decision making.

• PR can collect information relevant to decision making.

• PR can listen and collect information from constituents.

Defining Ethics

• Ethics concerns value judgments of good and bad, right or wrong.

• People hold different values.• Values reflect what is desirable in terms of

practices (behaviors or processes we should engage in) and end states of existence (goals we should seek).

• Involves judgments, not legal requirements.

Useful Quotation

• “Law is about what people must do, while ethics is about what people should do, they advise. Ethics begins where the law ends. Law is about compliance with set rules and procedures, while ethics involves more discretionary decision making... Law is not an appropriate guide for determining parameters of ethical behavior” (Fitzpatrick, 2006, p. 2).

What Are the Sources of Values?

• Personal level, people bring their own values into the organization.

• Organizational level, we can examine how organizations develop unique cultures including values and ways of doing things.

• Societal level, we recognize that our judgments of good and bad are shaped by societal expectations.

Hofstede’s Original Four Dimensions of Culture

1. Power distance.2. Uncertainty avoidance.3. Individualism.4. Masculinity.

Culture and Values

• Cultural differences complicate ethical decision making when the values of two cultures come into conflict.

Historical Context and Shifting Values

• Historical context: historical time periods reflect different ideas about acceptable behaviors, value orientations, and ethical standards.

• Shifting values: values within a society or organization can change over time.

The Question

• Given all of the possibilities for value differences, who gets to decide what is ethical?

Are Business Ethics Different from Ethics?

• Should they be driven by financial concerns—the profit motive?

• Does the unique context of business excuse it and PR from many ethical constraints?

• Is Friedman right or wrong in claiming only profit matters?

Ethical Perspectives

• Egoist• Teleological • Utilitarianism • Ethic of care

Egoist Perspective

• Focuses on the consequences or outcomes of an action.

• Driven by self-interest.• PR should do what is best for the organization.• When self-interests conflict, use cooperation

to find ways to resolve conflict.

Teleological Perspective

• One should consider the consequences or outcomes of an action to determine its ethical merit.

• The “greatest good for the greatest number” who are affected by the decision.

• The ethical decision is the one with the most benefits and least negative consequences.

Act Utilitarianism

• Suggests ethical actions are contingent on the nature of the situation.

• You look at the specific situation, and select the act that maximizes the greatest balance of good for all affected.

• Includes professional codes of conduct.

Rule Utilitarianism

• Associated with John Stuart Mill, emphasizes the importance of general rules of conduct that emphasize the greatest universal utility.

• Reflects concern with the public good or the public interest, a concern for the rights of all members of society.

Problems with Teleological Perspective

• Assumes consequences can be predicted/known.

• Difficult to balance interests of various groups.

Deontological Perspective

• Emphasizes “rule following,” stressing rights, moral principles, obligations, and duties.

• Decision making should be guided by moral principles that apply equally to all people.

Ethics of Duty

• Emphasizes obligation to moral rules (duties) based on universal, self-evident requirements.

• The emphasis is on the duty itself, not the consequences of the act.

• Can include applications of professional codes of conduct.

• Example is Kant’s categorical imperative.

Ethics of Rights

• Rights argues that people have certain rights and entitlements that should be respected.

• However, a person’s actions may not impinge upon the rights of another.

• Associated with John Locke.• Locke focuses on the obligation of the

community or government to the individual.

• Represents an additional ethical perspective that could guide public relations practitioners.

• Ethic of care emphasizes “maintaining connections and nurturing the web of relationships in which they were embedded” (Simola 2003, p. 354).

• Fits well with the boundary-spanning role of public relations.

Ethic of Care

Ethic of Care

• Emphasis on interdependence, authentic relationships, mutual understanding, and responsiveness to the needs of others.

• Consistent with dialogue.• Focus on the process, not the outcome.• Reflects a concern for trying to meet

conflicting responsibilities to different people, a challenge commonly experienced by public relations professionals.

Professional Associations and Ethics

• Each organization has codes of conduct.• Primary PR associations are – Public Relations Society of America (PRSA),– International Association of Business

Communicators (IABC)– Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR)– Global Alliance

An Example: PRSA• Public Relations Society of America.• List of “professional values” for the Code include– advocacy (providing a voice) – honesty (accuracy and truth) – expertise (applying specialized knowledge)– independence (objective counsel and accountability for

actions) – loyalty (to clients and the public interest)– fairness (in dealing with clients, competitors, the media,

and the general public; demonstrating respect for all opinions and supporting the right of free expression) (PRSA Member Code of Ethics, 2000, pp. 1-2).

Model for Ethical Decision Making

1. Identify that an ethical dilemma may exist. 2. Examine potential courses of action by applying

ethical perspectives. 3. Assess possible short-term and long-term

consequences of pursuing the course of action. 4. Determine and enact the most appropriate

course of action. 5. Assess the extent to which desired goals were

achieved.

Reflection Points

• Why is it that communicative choices involve ethics?

• Why is it difficult to create an ethical code for public relations?

• Why does public communication bring special ethical concerns with it?