7

Chapter-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Effluents are wastes produced from industries and they vary depending on the

human activities that produce them. Production of these wastes is an integral part of

industrial activities but unfortunately our inability to anticipate or predict the types

and magnitude of undesired consequences of unbridled release of effluents in our

environment, coupled with the growth of industrialization have resulted in massive

and destructive operations in our ecosystems.

Although industrial processes are desirable, at the same time, the serious and

irreversible damage done to the environment through their apparently innocuous

discharges of effluents are unquantifiable. Until now, effluents are discharged into

rivers, estuaries, lagoons or the sea without treatment by most o industries. However,

despite the treatment being employed by some industries, it is still impossible to

remove all undesirable properties from effluents.

A detailed review of literature was performed to know the work done on

similar or related aspects with respect to industrial effluents. Keeping in view the

objectives of the present investigation, the literature surveyed, been presented in three

following heads.

I. Constituents of different types of industrial effluents

II. Effects of industrial effluent on growth, yield and phenology of different

plant species

III. Acquired toxicity in selected plant species through different industrial

effluents

2.1. Constituents of different industrial effluents

Industrial effluents carry with them some substances that are usually not found

in water streams. For example vegetable oil industries release unused oil/ fatty acid

which form emulsion when mixed with water. This emulsified water is used to irrigate

crops or plants in surrounding areas. During absorption of such polluted

water/emulsified water xylem vessels are chocked and normal plant growth is affected

which can easily be seen in industrial belts. When such industrial effluents are

frequently used for irrigation it causes plant mortality as some of the crops/plant

8

species are more sensitive to the contaminated water as compared to others. The

effluents from vegetable oil industries and refineries are known to contain nickel,

dissolved solid, suspended solids material etc. Similarly, the effluents from steel

industries are known to release heavy metals. The other industries like, tanneries

require huge quantity of water for different tanning processes, which ultimately comes

out as wastewater, and technically known as tannery effluent. A number of chemicals

like common salt, lime, sodium sulphide, ammonium sodium carbonate, dye,

sulphonated vegetable oils, vegetable tanning materials basic chrome etc. are used in

different tanning operations, thus tannery effluent has much pollution load and

adversely affect the water stream, land/soil or ground water quality when ever

disposed off partially treated or untreated (Burfal et al., 1999). In following pages,

review has been presented on constituents of effluents released by different types of

industries from different parts of world.

2.1.1. Vegetable Oil and Food Processing Industry

Erickson (1998) compared the wastewater loads from major sources following

fat-trapping and found that in acidic water the total fatty content ranged from 500-

1000 mg/L, COD was expressed to be 2000-8000 mg/L, sulphate content ranged from

3500 to 20000 mg/L. The total fatty substance ranged from 20-10000 mg/L and COD

from 40 to 14000 mg/L. There was no sulphate content and the pH of the water

ranged from 6.5 to 8.0.

As per the Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook of World Bank

(1998) the wastewater from vegetable oil processing industry is high in organic

content, resulting in a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of 20,000–35,000

milligrams per liter (mg/l) and a chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 30,000–60,000

mg/l. In addition, the wastewaters contains high amount of dissolved solids (10,000

mg/l), oil and fat residues (5,000–10,000 mg/l), organic nitrogen (500–800 mg/l), and

ash residues (4,000 to 5,000 mg/l). Seed dressing and edible fat and oil processing

generate approximately 10–25 m3 of wastewater per metric ton (t) of product. Most of

the solid wastes (0.7–0.8 t/t of raw material), which are mainly of vegetable origin,

can be processed into by-products or used as fuel.

Ikhu-Omoregbe et al. (2001) characterized effluent discharges from edible oil

producing industries in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Snap and composite samples of the

9

liquid effluents were collected manually from manholes and discharge outlets of the

two edible oil producing plants for a period of six months. Samples were analyzed

using standard procedures. The effluent did not meet the regulatory quality standards

established by the municipality. The effluent was characterized by high values of

soap, oil and grease (SOG), chemical oxygen demand (COD), sulphates, total

dissolved salts and turgidity.

In a comparative evaluation of a laboratory and full-scale treatment

alternatives for the vegetable oil refining industry wastewater (VORW), Azbar and

Yonar (2003) analyzed the effluent in terms of pH (6.3–7.2), biochemical oxygen

demand (BOD) (4300–4700 mg l−1

), oil and grease (3600–3900 mg l−1

), total

suspended solids (TSS) (3800–4130 mg l−1

), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) (636–738

mg l−1

) and total phosphorus (TP) (61–63 mg l−1

). Vegetable oil wastes are made of

plant residues and oils. These discarded wastes pose a significant disposal problem in

many parts of the world. Several plants provide oil to fulfill nutritional needs (olive,

palm, soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and peanut). But some of the plants like olive oil

extraction plant produce a large quantity of wastes as residues. Such wastes are

characterized by low pH values, high contents in phenols and their derivates, organic

matter and nutrients. Hence, proper treatments of such waste are required to limit their

impact on the environment. The use of microbial communities for the degradation

(aerobic or anaerobic) of organic matter is one of the most frequently used methods.

However, due to the high content of useful substances, vegetable oil wastes have to be

considered as a resource for agriculture, food, pharmaceutical, and oleo-chemistry

industries (Denaro et al., 2010).

Tariq et al. (2006) reported that the effluents of a vegetable oil (ghee) factory

in Peshawar had a temperature of 33.9oC, pH 7.80, EC 288, TSS 426 mg/L, TDS 288

mg/L and BOD 110 mg/L. The heavy metal content for Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb

and Zn were 0.02, 0.30, 0.39, 0.46, 0.02, 0.88, 0.43 and 0.01 mg/L, respectively.

World Bank Group (2007) cautioned that vegetable oil processing wastewater

generated during oil washing and neutralization may have a high content of organic

material and subsequently, a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical

oxygen demand (COD). Wastewater may also have a high content of suspended

solids, organic nitrogen, and oil and fat, and may contain pesticide residues from the

10

treatment of the raw materials. Therefore, all such wastewater should be properly

treated before allowing it for use.

Pandey et al. (2008) have demonstrated the wastes of a vegetable oil refinery

at 35oC and at a pH of 1.9 contained the following loads (all in mg/): TDS = 7600, oil

and grease (7782), COD=29120, sulfides (8.4), sulfates (2.0), phosphates (7.4), heavy

metals – Pb (0.02), Cd (0.03), Cr (0), Zn (1.2), Mn (0.04), Ni (0.25), Fe (1.4) and Cu

(0.03). The wastewater released by the industry contained various emulsifiers,

biocides (metallic and nonmetallic solids), antioxidants and other chemical additives.

The wastewater had fatty substances in dispersed and non-dispersed forms. The

wastewater from boiler had alkalinity with the TDS in the range of 298-332 mg/L.

The phosphate in the boiler’s wastewater was found to be in the range of 7.0-11.5

mg/L. Ahmad et al. (2009) reported the characteristics of palm oil mill extract. They

found that the effluent was acidic in nature (pH 4.7) with high concentration of oil and

grease (4000 mg/L), an increased biochemical oxygen demand (25000 mg/L), COD

(50,000 mg/L) with a total solid content of 40500 mg/L of which suspended solids

were 18000 mg/L while total volatile solids were 34000 mg/L. Total nitrogen

concentration was 750 mg/L while total ammonical concentration was 35 mg/L.

Amongst different elements identified were Phosphorus (180 mg/L), Potassium (2270

mg/L), Magnesium (615 mg/L), Calcium (439 mg/L), Boron (7.6 mg/L), Iron (46.5

mg/L), Manganese (2 mg/L), Copper (0.89 mg/L) and Zinc (2.3 mg/L).

Aslan et al. (2009) characterized two different wastewaters that originated

from corn oil and sunflower oil refining processes. The aims for characterization of

wastewaters included: total and soluble chemical oxygen demand, total and soluble

biological oxygen demand, suspended solid, oil and grease, pH, total kjeldahl

nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, total phosphor, phosphate, color and sulfate analyses. In

corn oil wastewaters, total COD is portioned as 80% soluble COD, 20% particular

COD, 3.4% total soluble inert COD, 0.5% total particular inert COD, whereas in

sunflower oil wastewaters soluble COD, particular COD, total soluble inert COD,

total particular inert COD are found as 81.7%, 18.3%, 1.9%, and 5.1%, respectively.

In our characterization studies, BOD5/COD ratio were 0.15 and 0.2 for corn oil and

sunflower oil wastewaters, respectively. These results indicate that wastewaters are

not suitable for biological treatment. But investigation of COD fractions has pointed

out that wastewaters contain mostly biodegradable organic substances.

11

2.1.2. Distillery

Pandey et al. (2007) conducted physico-chemical analysis of effluent released

from distillery which was of red brown in colour with unpleasant odour of Indol,

Sketol and other sulphur compounds. Its temperature was 28.5oC. The average pH

value of the distillery effluent was 6.4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the distillery

effluent was not found, but BIS range was 4-6. The absence of DO is possibly due to

high organic load, the average value of total solid in distillery effluent is ~255 far

from the BIS recommended value of 100. The value of BOD in distillery effluent was

544.4 whereas recommended value of BIS is about 30 indicating high organic load.

The COD value of the distillery effluent was found to be 2433.3 mg/l while the

recommended level by BIS is 250 only; which may be due to high organic load.

The effluent from a Lucknow - based distillery (Mohan Meakin Distillery)

was analyzed by Pandey et al. (2008) for physico-chemical and biological parameters

of pollution and concentration of potentially toxic heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn).

The effluent was of wine red in colour and highly acidic (pH ~ 5.5) in nature and

possessed decaying alcoholic smell. The effluent contained high values of different

pollution parameters, particularly total solids, 3450 mgl-1 (soluble plus suspended

solids), alkalinity 1500 mgl-1, biological oxygen demand (BOD, 1649 mgl-1) and

chemical oxygen demand (COD, 2036 mgl-1). It had very low values of dissolved

oxygen (DO, 0.34 mgl-1). The heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn) content, particularly

the nickel concentration (0.029 mg l-1) was high.

2.1.3. Sugar Mill

Arora et al. (2006) performed physico-chemical analysis of sugar mill effluent on

studied its impact on seed germination of vegetable crops and reported increased level

of depletion in dissolved oxygen which was either nil or negligible along with high

values of BOD (1311.66 mg/l), COD 5 (1883 nmg/L), MPN (114250/100ml) and SPC

(48.33×10 /ml). They further reported significant variability for seed germination

among the crops studied and maximum seed germination of Solanum melongena was

found at 5% effluent whereas in case of Lycopersicon esculentum maximum

percentage of seed germination was recorded at 100% effluent and it was equal to

control set used in the study. The study suggested dilution of effluents for its use for

irrigation purpose.

12

Baskaran et al. (2009) studied effect of sugar mill effluent polluted soil on

green gram. The sugar mill effluents had higher amount of suspended solids,

dissolved solids, BOD, COD, chloride sulphate, nitrates, calcium and magnesium.

The bioremediated soil showed a good germination of green gram seeds in their study.

Further, the polluted soil were mixed with some organic amendments like coir waste,

vermicompost, Rhizobium and cow dung to improve the soil fertility and their

efficacy was tested by growing green gram plant in that soil and among the

amendments, the vermin-compost mixed polluted soil showed good morphological

and yield parameters.

Samuel and Muthukrarrupan (2011) studied effect of sugar mill effluents,

which contain high amount of suspended solids, dissolved solids, BOD, COD,

chloride, sulphate, nitrates, calcium and magnesium etc. on crops and reported that

continuous use of these effluents harmfully affects the crops. He studied physico-

chemical parameters of sugar mill effluent and contaminated soil taking various

concentrations (0%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75 % and 100%) of the effluent on seed

germination, germination speed of paddy (Oryza sativa L.) and found low effluent pH

(4.20), total dissolved solids (TDS, 1480mg/L) and chemical oxygen demand (COD,

3140mg/L) for sugar effluent. In his study, germination percentages and germination

values decreased with increasing concentration of effluent in the rice seeds tested.

2.1.4. Paper Mill

Himabindu and Reddy (2005) analyzed paper mill effluent for physical and chemical

parameters and found that nutrients like Mg, Ca, S, K and Cu were found to be higher

in effluents which are useful in the synthesis of pigments. Chlorophyll a and b were

enhanced in effluent irrigated plant over the control and significant increase in total

chlorophyll and carotenoids was also recorded by them.

In another study, Sharma et al. (2005) observed acidic (pH 3.6) nature of the

paper mill effluent with higher BOD and COD.

2.1.5. Battery Industry

A simple, fast and easy to perform method, was used for the quantification of the

inhibitory effect of Battery manufacturing industry’s effluent on Raphanus sativus L.

and Trigonella foenumgracum L by Kumar et al. (2009). Varying concentrations (25,

50, 75, 100 %) of effluent were used to observe influence on seed germination and

13

root elongation. The effluent was alkaline in nature (pH 7.4), slight pungent in odour

and muddish in colour. Cu, Cr, Cd, Ni, Pb and Mn concentrations (2.68, 0.12, 0.26,

1.26, 0.18, 0.12 mg/l, respectively) were found to be higher than the prescribed ISI

standard for potable and irrigation water, whereas Fe and Zn concentration (0.24 and

4.64 mg/l, respectively) were found to be within the limit.

2.1.6. Petrochemical Industry

Based on extensive GC/MS screening analyses, Botaloua et al. (2009) characterized

the molecular diversity of petrochemical effluents discharged to a river in North

Rhine-Westphalia. Within a wide spectrum of organic wastewater constituents,

specific compounds that might act as source indicators have been determined. This

differentiation was based on (i) the individual molecular structures, (ii) the

quantitative appearance of organic compounds in treated effluents and (iii) the

information on their general occurrence in the technosphere and hydrosphere.

Principally, site-specific indicators have been distinguished from candidates to act as

general petrochemical indicators. Further, monitoring of environmental behaviour of

target organic contaminants in an aquatic system soon after their release into the river

allowed a first evaluation of the impact of the petrogenic emission in terms of the

quantity and spatial distribution. The identification of petrogenic contaminants was

not restricted to constituents of the effluents only, but also comprised the compounds

circulating in the wastewater systems within a petrochemical plant. A number of

environmentally relevant and structurally specific substances that are normally

eliminated by wastewater treatment facilities were identified. Insufficient wastewater

treatment, careless waste handling or accidents at industrial complexes are potential

sources for a single release of the pollutants. This study demonstrates the relevance of

source specific organic indicators to be an important tool for comprehensive

assessment of the potential impact of petrochemical activities to the contamination of

an aquatic environment.

2.1.7. Dyeing and Tannery Industry

Mondal et al. (2005) studied the impact of pollution due to tanneries on groundwater

regime in Dindigul town in upper Kodaganar river basin. Detailed analysis for

groundwater quality was conducted. The dissolved chemical constituents in

groundwater and their concentration have been studied. High values of correlation

14

were observed between EC and Cl, and EC and Na. Progressive reduction in

correlation coefficients for Mg2+

, (Na+ + K

+), Ca

2+ and SO4

2– was observed as 0.91,

0.87, 0.86 and 0.56, respectively. It was found that the quality of groundwater in this

area has deteriorated mainly due to extensive use of chemicals (NaCl) in the leather

industries.

Balakrishnan et al. (2008) studied the impact of dyeing industrial effluents on

the groundwater quality in Kancheepuram (India). Twenty groundwater samples were

collected from various parts of the dyeing industrial region and the samples were

analyzed with standard analytical methods. The concentrations of total dissolved

solids (1138 to 2574 mg/L), chloride (216 to 847 mg/L), total hardness (225 to 760

mg/L), sulphate (64 to 536 mg/L), nitrate (up to 58 g/L), iron (up to 2.3 mg/L) and

lead (up to 0.281 mg/L) were found to be higher and exceeded the permissible limits

of BIS and WHO standards. The user specific water quality indices (USWQI) of each

groundwater sample were evaluated for both purposes. The USWQI of the

groundwater samples varied from 85 to 30 for drinking purpose and 89 to 50 for

irrigation purpose.

Sahu et al. (2008) carried out the toxicity assessment of tannery effluent in

terms of percent phytotoxicity and shoot/root dry weight ratio. The effluent used in

the study was collected from the outlet of an effluent treatment plant situated in the

Jajmau area of Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), India. The concentration of heavy metals in

the effluent was found to be Cr = 0.135, Cu = 0.065, Zn = 0.052, and Ni = 0.036

mg/L.

Dhanam and Arulbalachandran (2009) conducted experiments to to understand

the effect of different concentrations of TANFAC effluent on seed germination and

seedling growth of five varieties of black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper). The

TANFAC effluent is having a higher amount of organic and inorganic element. The

Physico-chemical analysis showed that it was acidic in nature. It was rich in total

suspended and dissolved solids with large amount of Biological Oxygen Demand

(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). The effluents severally affect crop

plants and soil properties when used for irrigation. The growth parameters such as

germination percentage root length shoot length, number of lateral roots, fresh weight

and dry weight were taken on 10th day. All the parameters were found to increase at

10% effluent concentration and it decrease from 25% effluent concentration onwards.

15

Among black gram, variety V-2 was tolerant to TANFAC effluent when compared to

other varieties.

2.1.8: Fertilizer Industry: Pollution effects of fertilizer factory’s effluent on growth

and development of corn and rice seedlings were studied by Mishra and Singh (1987).

The effluent was found to be rich in various solids, biochemical oxygen demand

(13013), N+, Ca

2+, Na

+, Cl

−, Co3

2− and HCO3

−, deficient in dissolved oxygen and

highly alkaline in nature.

2.1.9. Dairy Mill

Bhatnagar and Gupta (2002) studied nature and quality of soil impaired by dairy

effluents to ascertain the feasibility of use of the effluents for establishment and

growth of trees and forage crops suited to the desert region. The impact of the

effluents on soils was studied by examining the physico-chemical characteristics of

soil (treated and virgin soil) in comparison to due standards use for irrigation of soils.

Arora et al. (2005) studied physicochemical and bacteriological characteristics

of Aachal Dairy mill effluent and its effects on seed germination of some agricultural

crops. They found that effluent was highly polluted and carry high load of organic

contents as evident by total absence of dissolved oxygen and enhanced value of total

solids.

Uaboi-Egbenni et al. (2009) analyzed physico-chemical parameters like pH,

electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, chemical oxygen demand (COD),

biological oxygen demand (BOD) and oil level in industrial effluents. Results

obtained show that the main drain (MD) had the highest electrical conductivity (1961

μs, pH 10.43), as well as total dissolved solids (TDS, 977 mg/l). Effluent from

toiletries had the highest concentration of oil (0.121) and the lowest pH (2.75).

Kohle and Pawar (2011) analyzed treated and untreated effluents samples

from dairy industry for physicochemical parameters like pH, temp, color, DO, BOD,

COD, TDS, TSS, TS, Chloride Sulphate, Oil & grease and found vast differences

between two groups of effluents for various parameters.

2.1.10. Mixed Industries

Subbarao et al. (1998) studied groundwater pollution due to discharge of industrial

effluents from a polymers factory in Venkatapuram. Untreated industrial effluent

16

from the plant was discharged with total dissolved solids concentrations reaching up

to 6500 mg/l.

Priyadarshani (1998) assessed trace elements in Safi river water in Bachra area

of north Karanpura coal fields of Hazaribagh District showed presence of zinc,

copper, nickel, cadmium, lead, manganese, mercury, cobalt and iron.

The efficiency of alternative treatment processes in producing a final effluent

conforming to regulatory standards with regards to chemical oxygen demand (COD)

and oil and grease (O&G) loads was assessed by Azbar and Yonar (2004). The study

was conducted in three principal stages: waste characterization, lab-scale treatability

studies and full-scale applications. The effluent were characterized in terms of pH

(6.3–7.2), total COD (13,750–15,000 mg l−1

), soluble COD (CODs) (6500–7000 mg

l−1

), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) (4300–4700 mg l−1

), O&G (3600–3900 mg

l−1

), total suspended solids (TSS) (3800–4130 mg l−1

), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)

(636–738 mg l−1

) and total phosphorus (TP) (61–63 mg l−1

).

Heavy metals contamination through industrial effluent to irrigation water and

soil in Korangi area of Karachi (Pakistan) was studied by Saif et al. (2005). For this

purpose, 24 samples from different drains and four tube wells water samples were

collected and analyzed in the year 2000. Similarly, soil and plant samples were taken

from the same area and analyzed to assess their heavy metal contamination. It was

found that Zn was 0.005-5.5, Cu 0.005-1.19, Fe 0.04-5.58, Mn 0.01-1.79, Cd 0.004-

2.4, Cr 0.004- 5.62, Ni 0.02-5.35 and Pb 0.05 to 2.25 mg L-1 in various waste water

samples. It was also noted that 4% samples contained Zn, Cu, Fe and Cr above the

critical values; while 7, 21, 14 and 36% samples were higher than the required values

in Mn, Cd, Ni and Pb, respectively. Similarly, soil analysis (0-20 cm) showed higher

values of Zn, Fe, Mn, Cd, Ni and Pb at some places. Like wise plant samples

(spinach) had greater concentrations of many heavy metals than the recommended

values. However, area irrigated with tube well water was safe and heavy metal

quantities were within the limits in soil and plants.

Tariq et al. (2006) conducted a study to evaluate various industrial effluents of

Hayatabad Industrial Estate (HIE), Peshawar (Pakistan) and assess the possible

impacts of such effluents on quality of underground water. A total 12 samples

including 7 from industrial effluents at the discharge point of each industry (marble,

17

matches, steel, aluminum, pharmaceutical, beverages, ghee industries), 1 from main

drain receiving effluents of all industries and 4 from tube or dug wells in the vicinity

of the Estate were collected in March, 2003 and analyzed for temperature, pH,

electrical conductivity, total dissolved salts, total suspended solids, biological oxygen

demand and heavy metal contents (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn). The

characteristics of effluents varied with the industry. The pH of one effluent (from

aluminum industry) was beyond the limit and of the remaining within the permissible

limit whereas TSS of one effluent (Pepsi industry) was within and of the remaining

beyond the permissible limits comparing with the National Environmental Quality

Standards (NEQS). The BOD was above the permissible limit in almost all of the

effluents. Among heavy metals, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe and Zn were within the permissible

limits in all but Mn, Ni and Pb were beyond the permissible limits in one or more

effluents. Variable results were also obtained for various parameters in underground

water samples. The pH, TSS, TDS, Fe and Zn were within the permissible limits in all

but Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni and Pb were above the permissible limits in one or more water

samples compared with the WHO and US-EPA standards established for drinking

water. These results suggested that effluents discharged from various industries

showed variable characteristics and are potential threat to underground water

contamination. It is, thus, recommended that wastewater treatment plants must be

established with each industry. Further, efficient environmental laws and social

awareness program must be undertaken for inhabitants of the estate and in the

surrounding area with respect to potential threat of industrial effluents to the

environment.

Tariq et al. (2008) estimated Levels of selected metals Na, Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Mn,

Cr, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb and Mn by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry in

groundwater samples from Kasur, a significant industrial city of Pakistan. Salient

mean concentration levels were recorded for: Na (211 mg/l), Ca (187 mg/l), Mg

(122 mg/l), K (87.7 mg/l), Fe (2.57 mg/l) and Cr (2.12 mg/l). Overall, the decreasing

metal concentration order was: Na > Ca > Mg > K > Fe > Cr > Zn > Co > Pb > Mn >

Ni > Cd. Significantly positive correlations were found between Na–Cr (r=0.553),

Na-Mn (r=0.543), Mg–Fe (r=0.519), Mg–Cr (r=0.535), Pb–K (r=0.506) and Pb–Ni

(r=0.611). Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis identified tannery

effluents as the main source of metal contamination of the groundwater. The present

18

metal data showed that Cr, Pb and Fe levels were several times higher than those

recommended for water quality by WHO, US-EPA, EU and Japan. The elevated

levels of Cr, recorded as 21–42 fold higher compared with the recommended quality

values, were believed to originate from the tanning industry of Kasur.

Sial et al. (2006) conducted a study at Hattar Industrial Estate extending over

700 acres located in Haripur district of North West Frontier Province (Pakistan) which

is a new industrial estate and has been developed with proper planning for

management of industrial effluents. The major industries located in Hattar are ghee

industry, chemical (sulfuric acid, synthetic fiber) industry, textile industry and

pharmaceuticals industry. These industries, although developed with proper planning

have been discharging their effluents in the nearby natural drains and ultimately

collected in a big drain near Wah. The farmers in the vicinity had been using these

effluents for growing vegetables and cereal crops due to shortage of water. They

collected the water samples from sewage and normal tap water samples in vicinity of

these industries and analysed them for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total soluble

salts (TSS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total

nitrogen, cations and anions and heavy metals. The effluents of ghee and textile

industries were found to be highly alkaline. EC and TSS loads of ghee and textile

industries were also above the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS),

Pakistan. All the effluents had residual sodium carbonates (RSCs), carbonates and

bicarbonates in amounts that cannot be used for irrigation. Total toxic metals load in

all the effluents is also above the limit i.e. 2.0 mg/L. Copper in effluents of textile and

sewage, manganese in ghee industry effluents and iron contents in all the effluents

were higher than NEQS.

In a comparative study of effluent from dairy farming, municipality sewage,

textile industry and tap water, Shrestha and Niroula (2006) found that Dairy Farming

effluent was associated with high pH (7.4) and small amount of organic matter. The

Municipality Sewage contained high organic matter while high solute particles (1.7

g/l) were found in Textile industry effluent. The highest value of dissolved oxygen

(4.15 mg/l), lowest value of solute particles (0.4 g/l) and negligible organic matter

were found in tap water.

Singh and Chandel (2006) analyzed the heavy metal content in the industrial

effluents from Jaipur (Rajasthan). For the characterization of heavy metals of various

19

industrial effluents, some heavy metals, like Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper,

Iron, Manganese, Nickel, Lead and Zinc were analyzed. The results exhibited that As,

Cd, Cr and Pb were not found in any studied wastewater samples, while some of the

following heavy metals ranged from : Cu (0.0 . 1.0 mg/L), Fe (0.1 . 0.4 mg/L), Mn

(0.0 . 0.4 mg/L), Ni (0.01 . 0.07 mg/L) and Zn (0.68 . 60.84 mg/L). Copper, Iron,

Manganese and Zinc were found above the standard limit recommended by IS: 3307

(1977). However, Nickel was found below the regulated safety values for all studied

samples.

Uaboi-Egbenni et al. (2009) investigated the industrial effluents from 5

different industrial concerns in Lagos, Nigeria. They studied the physical parameters

of the effluent including pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, chemical

oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD) and oil level. Results

obtained show that the main drain (MD) had the highest electrical conductivity (1961

μs, pH 10.43), as well as total dissolved solids (TDS, 977 mg/l). Effluent from

toiletries had the highest concentration of oil (0.121) and the lowest pH (2.75).

Accumulation and distribution of toxic metals in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

and Indian mustard (Brassica campestris L.) irrigated with distillery and tannery

effluents were assessed by Chandra et al. (2009). Analyses of effluents and soil

samples have shown high metal content than the permissible limit except Pb.

Nagajyothi et al. (2009) also analyzed industrial effluent released by the

power plant. The effluent was of alkaline in nature (pH 8.5), odorless and comprises

heavy metals such as Cr (0.071 mg l-1

),Cu (0.014 mg l-1

), Mn (0.036 mg l-1

), Fe (0.05

mg l-1

),Co (0.31 mg l-1

), Ni (0.041 mg l-1

),Cd (0.028 mg l-1

), Pb (0.108 mg l-1

) and Zn

(6.73 mg l-1

).

Ahmad and Goni (2009) estimated concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd, Fe,

and Ni in soils and vegetables grown in and around an industrial area of Bangladesh.

The order of metal contents was found to be Fe > Cu > Zn > Cr > Pb > Ni > Cd in

contaminated irrigation water, and a similar pattern Fe > Zn > Ni > Cr > Pb > Cu >

Cd was also observed in arable soils. Metal levels observed in different sources were

compared with World Health Organization, SEPA, and established permissible levels

reported by different authors. Mean concentration of Cu, Fe, and Cd in irrigation

water and Cd content in soil were much above the recommended levels.

20

The critical review on analysis of effluents from different industries indicated

presence of pollutants in varying quantity. Presence of heavy metals and dissolved

solids were mainly responsible for polluting water streams and soils due to discharge

of industrial effluents.

2.2. Effect of industrial effluent on growth, yield and phenology of different plant

species

2.2.1. Distillery

Behera and Misra (1982) analysed the effect of industrial effluent on growth and

development of rice seedlings. The effect of industrial effluent of a molasses distillery

on growth and development of rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings showed that high

concentration of effluent altered the normal pattern of rice seed germination. At 5, 10,

20, and 50% (v/v) effluent concentrations, the coleoptile emerged before the

emergence of root primordia. The green colour development of the coleoptile was

delayed with the increase in the effluent concentration. Percentage of germination,

viability, branching in roots, shoot and root length, fresh weight, and dry weight of the

rice seedlings showed negative relationship with the effluent concentration. The

cations and anions in shoot and root of rice seedlings (control) was found to be the

same, whereas in the effluent-treated rice seedlings relatively high amount of

potassium and sodium and low amount of chloride was found in roots compared to

shoots. But the amounts of phosphorus, magnesium, and calcium were almost in same

quantity in both, root and shoot.

Kannan (2001) studied the effect of distillery effluent on commonly cultivated

crop plants (Phaseolus aureus and Pennisetum typhoides) under laboratory

conditions. He found that with 100 per cent effluent irrigation, the germination was

badly affected. However, 1% effluent and 5% effluent irrigation was helpful in

increasing the vigour index of the crop plants.

Pandey et al. (2002) assessed effect of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%

distillery effluent concentrations on germination of various plant species and reported

that the seed germination percentage in wheat (98±57%, 93±50%, 89±33%, 82±28%

and 77±20%), sweet pea (100±0%, 98±1%, 90±33%, 70±1.15% and 65±1.52%) and

lady's finger (96±1%, 91±1%, 79±66%, 76±0.005% and 73±1% ).

21

A field experiment with groundnut as test crop was conducted by Ramana et

al. (2002) to evaluate the manurial potential of three distillery effluents: raw spent

wash (RSW), biomethanated spent wash (BSW) and lagoon sludge (LS) vis-à-vis

recommended fertilizers (NPK + farm yard manure (FYM)) and a control (no

fertilizer or distillery effluent). It was found that all the three distillery effluents

increased total chlorophyll content, crop growth rate (CGR), total dry matter, nutrient

uptake (N, P and K) and finally seed yield compared to the control but inhibited

nodulation and decreased nitrogen fixation. Among the three distillery effluents, BSW

produced the highest seed yield (619 kg ha−1

) twice that of control (3.10 kg ha−1

),

followed by RSW (557 kg ha−1

) and LS (472 kg ha−1

). However, the distillery

effluents did not influence protein and oil contents. It was concluded that these

distillery effluents because of their high manurial potential could supply nutrients,

particularly potassium, nitrogen and sulphur, to the crops and thus reduce the fertilizer

requirement of crops. Nevertheless, the crop performance and yield with three

distillery effluents were overall less than that produced by recommended NPK + FYM

probably on account of failure of the effluents to supply balanced nutrition to the

plants for achieving their potential growth capacity.

In another study, Ramana et al. (2002) assessed effect of different

concentrations (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%) of distillery

effluent (raw spent wash) on seed germination (%), speed of germination, peak value

and germination value in some vegetable crops: tomato, chilli, bottle gourd, cucumber

and onion. The distillery effluent did not show any inhibitory effect on seed

germination at low concentration except in tomato, but in onion the germination was

significantly higher (84%) at 10% concentration as against 63% in the control.

Irrespective of the crop species, at highest concentrations (75% and 100%), complete

failure of germination was observed. The speed of germination, peak value and

germination value also followed a similar trend. They found that a concentration of

5% was critical for seed germination in tomato and bottle gourd, and 25% in the rest

of the crops. Based on the tolerance to distillery effluent, the crops studied have been

arranged in the following order: cucumber > chilli > onion > bottle gourd >tomato.

Further, they concluded that the effect of the distillery effluent was crop-specific and

due care should be taken before using the distillery effluent for pre-sowing irrigation

purposes.

22

Suthar et al.

(2005) studied the impact of distillery effluent on seed

germination and seedling growth of some plants. They reported that the percent of

seed germination in Vigna radiata, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Vigna aconitifolia and

Trigonella foenum-graecum was found maximum with treatment of 60% (P<0.001),

80% (P<0.005), 40% (P<0.0005) and 100% (P<0.005), respectively as compared to

control. Similarly, root length and shoot height also showed maximum values with the

range of 20-40% distillery effluent concentration as compared to control (P<0.001).

Nevertheless, increased concentration of distillery effluent significantly inhibited the

plant development.

Pandey et al. (2007) conducted physico-chemical analysis of effluent released

from distillery and studied effect of distillery effluent on seed germination of wheat

(Triticum aestivum), pea (Pisum sativum) and lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus),

which was of red brown in colour with unpleasant odour of Indol, Sketol and other

sulphur compounds. They conducted experiment using various concentrations of the

effluents (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% & 100%) and assessed effect on seed germination,

speed of seed germination, peak value and germination value of three selected plant

species and found that germination percentage decreases with increasing

concentration of effluent in all the tested plant species, where as the germination

speed, peak value and germination value increases from control to 25% and 50%

concentration and decreases from 50% to 75% and 100% effluent.

Pandey et al. (2008) studied effect of contaminated water possessing toxic

heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn) on germination and seedling growth of corn or

maize (Zea mays) and rice (Oryza sativa) and found that maize and rice can be grown

on mild acidic soils as there was less reduction in growth and grain yield.

Petri-dish experiment was conducted by Nath et al. (2007) to study the effect

of different concentrations of distillery effluent on pulses. The higher concentration of

the different elements (already present in effluent), Biological Oxygen Demand and

Chemical Oxygen Demand affected the seed germination, seedling growth and

ultimately plant growth and yield. The petridish experiment, using effluent of one of

the distillery of Lucknow region, on seed germination and seedling growth in pea and

black gram revealed that potassium content of distillery effluent adversely affected

seed germination, seedling growth (radicle and plumule size), number of lateral roots,

total chlorophyll, total amylase, fresh weight, dry weight, moisture content and water

23

absorption. Therefore, the higher concentration of effluent was found to be toxic, but

can be used for irrigation purpose after proper treatment and dilution.

A study performed by Pandey and Nautiyal (2008) on pollution level in

distillery effluent and its phytotoxic effect on seed germination and early growth of

maize and rice exhibited that use of distillery effluent, even on 1:1 dilution with tap

water, inhibit germination and early seeding growth of maize and rice. In both maize

and rice, more so in the former, germination % of seeds, length of radicle and plumule

and fresh and dry weight of the seedling were significantly reduced. The observations

suggested that the effluent, as discharged from the distillery, carry a heavy load of

pollutants. Their discharge into the river posed a potential threat to the aquatic life

particularly during summer months when the water flow in river is drastically

reduced. The distillery effluent was also found to be harmful for irrigating crops

growth along with drain carrying it. Pandey and Neraliya (2002) studied effect of

distillery effluent on seed germination, seedling growth, chlorophyll and protein

contents of chickpea (Bengal gram) and observed several mutations with altered

growth and varying levels of chlorophyll and seed protein.

Kannan and Upreti (2008) studied the influence of distillery effluent on

germination and growth of mungbean (Vigna radiata) seeds. Experimental effects of

untreated (raw) distillery effluent, discharged from a distillery unit (based on

fermentation of alcohol from sugarcane molasses), and the post-treatment effluent

from the outlet of conventional anaerobic treatment plant (treated effluent) of the

distillery unit were studied in mungbean (Vigna radiata). Mungbean seeds were

presoaked for 6 h and 30 h, respectively, in different concentrations (5–20%, v/v) of

each effluent and germination, growth characters, and seedling membrane enzymes

and constituents were investigated. Results revealed that the leaching of

carbohydrates and proteins (solute efflux) were much higher in case of untreated

effluent and were also dependent to the presoaking time. Other germination characters

including percentage of germination, speed of germination index, vigor index and

length of root and embryonic axis revealed significant concentration-dependent

decline in untreated effluent. Evaluation of seedlings membrane transport enzymes

and structural constituents (hexose, sialic acid and phospholipids) following 6 h

presoaking of seeds revealed concentration-dependent decline, which were much less

24

in treated effluent as compared to the untreated effluent. Treated effluent up to 10%

(v/v) concentration reflected low-observed adverse effect levels.

2.2.2. Power Plant

In an experiment, Nagajyoti et al. (2008) studied the effect of industrial effluent from

a power plant on groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) seedlings. The distribution of

heavy metals in the soils and corresponding accumulations in the experimental crop

was investigated on different experimental days 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30th day. The

metals Cr, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Pb, Cd and Zn in plants and soil samples were

analyzed by AAS technique. In Arachis hypogaea plants Fe was high in 100%

effluent at 10, 15, 20, 25th days. It has been observed that at 25% effluent

concentration, there is growth in the root length, an increase in shoot length,

germination percentage, Chl a, chl b, total chlorophyll content in Arachis hypogaea L.

chlorophyll content have increased up to the 20th day (2.929, 1.607, 4.536 mg/g fw)

and then decreased from 25th day (1.670, 0.832, 2.149 mg/g fw) onwards.

Nagajyoti et al. (2009) conducted a pot culture experiment to study the effect

of power plant’s effluent on seed germination, seedling growth and chlorophyll

content of green gram variety ‘LGG 460’ at different effluent concentrations and time

intervals. The effluent is alkaline in nature (pH 8.5), odorless, and had heavy metals

viz., Cr, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb and Zn. The germination percentage of seed,

seedling growth and chlorophyll content showed a gradual decline with increase in

effluent’s concentration. They found positive effect of 25% effluent concentration on

root length, shoot length and total chlorophyll content during initial 20 days. Later

(after 20 day of treatment) declining trend was observed for all growth parameters.

However, at higher concentrations of the effluent, toxic effects were observed from

20th day onward. The study indicated that the power plant’s effluents can be used

safely for green gram cultivation only after proper treatment and dilution.

2.2.3. Petrochemical Industry

Suitability of petrochemical industry wastewater for irrigation was assessed by Aziz

et al. (1995) in a field experiment conducted at the Experimental Farm of Indian Oil

Corporation Limited, Mathura Refinery, Mathura (India), to study the effect of treated

wastewater in comparison with ground water on four cultivars of wheat on the basis

of growth, yield and grain quality. It was noted that wastewater increased all growth

25

and yield parameters. Soil irrigated with wastewater showed no significant changes in

pH, total organic carbon, calcium, water soluble salts, cation exchange capacity and

SAR. Treated refinery wastewater met the irrigational quality requirements as its

physico-chemical characteristics were within the permissible limits.

2.2.4. Vegetable Oil

Salimon (2007) conducted a study to see the effect of palm oil mill effluent (pome)

on soil properties, growth, nodulation and yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in

palm oil producing zone of Nigeria. He conducted experiments at the two main

producing locations of Ekpoma and Calabar both in rainforest ecological zones of

Nigeria. The experiments had four treatments with three replications and arranged in

completely randomized design (CRD). The treatments were applied at 0ml-T0, 40ml-

T1, 80ml-T2 and 120ml-T3 concentrations in the pots of 2 kg soil. Then 3 seeds of

cowpea (dual purpose variety) were planted in each pot. The germination test

indicated the seed in the control plot sprouted better than those for the POME treated

pots. Soil analysis was carried out before and after POME application and planting of

cowpea. Results showed that effluent supplies nutrients to the soil, improves

infiltration rate and aggregate stability. The effluent retarded growth of cowpea at the

early stage, enhances nodulation when applied in a controlled manner and inhibits

nodulation when applied in large quantity. It was suggested that POME can be used as

organic fertilizer material to improve degraded, sandy, and low organic matter soils.

2.2.5. Food Processing Industry

Pimentel et al. (2009) analyzed the plant effluents from the cashew nut processing

plant which is a major industry in almost all northeastern States of Brazil. The

technical cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), which contains mainly cardanol, cardol,

polymeric material, and traces of methyl-cardol, is the most abundant bye-product of

this process. The high level of CNSL in the effluent generated during production is a

potential environmental toxin. They assessed the toxicity of this industrial effluent,

specifically two of its major components, cardol and cardanol, using the brine shrimp

(Artemia sp.) lethality assay. Effluents were collected at a cashew nut processing plant

located in Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. Cardol and cardanol were isolated from the

technical CNSL. The LC50 of cardol was 0.56 and 0.41 mg/L after 24 and 48 hr

exposures, respectively, and of cardanol was 1.59 and 0.42 mg/L. The LC50 values

26

for crude effluent were 1.38 and 0.60 % after 24 and 48 hr exposures, respectively,

and were 2.16 and 0.88 % for treated effluent. Data from this study suggested that the

cashew nut industry effluents are highly toxic to the environment. The current

treatment strategy to minimize the toxicity of this industry’s effluent is insufficient

and must be improved.

Ehiagbonare et al. (2009) studied the effect of cassava effluent on Okada

environment. Two sets of same five plant species Sida acuta, Icacina trachanta,

Euphorbia hirata, Tridax procumbens and Chromelaena odorata (all these plants are

used as ethnic medicinal plants) were germinated and irrigated with cassava effluent

for 10 days at alternate days. One part of the effluent had read palm oil in it from

processing while a part of it had non-significant results were obtained from the one

without red palm oil. Only Chlomolaena odorata survived out of the five plant

species. The survival was 5% in 100% effluent concentration, 20% survival in 75%

effluent concentration, 35% survival in 50% effluent concentration whereas control

had 100% survival. Results from the effluents with red palm oil were non-significant.

2.2.6. Fertilizer Industry

Mishra and Singh (1987) studied the pollution effects of fertilizer factory effluent on

growth and development of corn (maize) and rice seedlings. They found that Effluent

at low concentrations of 2.5 and 5% (v/v) had non-significant effect on seed

germination but enhanced the growth and development of seedlings of both test crops.

Higher concentrations of effluent, however, reduced seed viability and percentage

germination and caused deleterious effects on growth and development. The greening

of the coleoptile was delayed at higher effluent concentrations. The concentrations of

Na+, Ca

2+, Na

+ and Cl

− in the shoot and root systems of control seedlings of corn and

rice were similar whereas in effluent-treated seedlings, a relatively high amount of

Na+ and low amount of Cl

− was found in the roots as compared to the shoots, but the

amount of Ca2+

was similar in both.

Singh et al. (2006) studied the impact of fertilizer factory effluent on seed

germination, seedling growth and chlorophyll content of gram (Cicer arietinum) and

found that the germination percentage of seed, seedling growth and chlorophyll

content showed a gradual decline with increase in effluent concentration. However, at

higher concentrations of the effluent toxic effects were observed at 21 days. The study

27

suggested that the effluent can be used safely for Cicer arietinum cultivation, only

after proper treatment and dilution.

2.2.7. Tannery

Bala (1994) studied the effect of tannery effluent on germination and growth

of selected pulse and cereal crop plants. The Study was carried out to assess the

impact of tannery effluent on seedling growth of Vigna radiata, Cajanus cajan and

Sorghum bicolor plants under laboratory conditions. The values of germination

percentage, seedling growth, chlorophyll content and phytomass accumulation

increased over control set with corresponding increase of effluents concentrations.

Bera et al. (1999) studied the effect of tannery effluent on seed germination,

seedling growth and chloroplast pigment content in mungbean (Vigna radiata L.

Wilezek). They studied the effect of different concentrations of tannery effluent on

seed germination, seedling growth and chloroplast pigments in mungbean (Vigna

radiata L. Wilczek) cv Pusa Baisakhi. It was suggested that tannery effluent can

never be employed in the field directly or at higher concentration but can be utilized

as a liquid fertilizer only for certain crops at 2.5% dilution level.

Singh and Joshi (2001) studied the genotoxic effect of tannery effluent in

Allium cepa L. in effluents collected during rainy season. They showed that tannery

effluent collected during the rainy season depressed the mitotic division to

considerable extent in the root meristem of Allium cepa L. The capability of treated

cells to recover from the mitotic depression declined gradually.

2.2.8. Sugar Mill

Arora et al. (2006) reported the impact of sugar mill effluent on seed

germination on certain agricultural crops. In their study variability was found on the

impact of effluent on percentage of seed germination of agricultural crops. Maximum

seed germination of Solanum melongena was found at 5% effluent. In case of

Lycopersicon esculentum maximum percentage of seed germination was recorded at

100% effluent, which was equal to control set used in the study.

Ayyaswami et al. (2008) studied the impact of sugar factory effluent on the

growth and biochemical characteristics of terrestrial and aquatic plants. The physico-

chemical characteristics of sugar industry effluent were measured and some were

found to be above those limits permissible in the Indian irrigation water standard. A

28

pot study was initially conducted to study the effects of different concentrations (20%,

40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) of sugar factory effluent on seed germination, seedling

growth and biochemical characteristics of green gram and maize. A similar study was

also carried out using the aquatic plants, water hyacinth and water lettuce. The higher

effluent concentrations (above 60%) were found to affect plant growth, but diluted

effluent (up to 60%) favored seedling growth.

2.2.9. Pulp and Paper Mill

Chakravarthi et al. (1995) analyzed paper mills effluent effect around Shri

R.R. Paper mill area as the cultivators are using this paper mill effluent for irrigation.

From physico-chemical characteristics calculated values of Sodium Absorption Ratio

(SAR) and, Percent Sodium (PS), the quality of effluent was established by the

researchers.

Singh et al. (2002) assessed the agropotentiality of the effluent coming out

from century pulp and paper mill, Lalkuan (Uttaranchal) on wheat (Triticum aestivum

var. UP 2329) crop grown in two soils differing in texture with different effluent

concentrations. Diluted effluent increased the chlorophyll content, plant height, shoot

and root biomass, grain yield, protein, carbohydrate and lipid contents in wheat

grains, while undiluted effluent caused inhibition in plant growth resulting in a sharp

decline of yield. Pure soil provided better growth and yield results than the soil mixed

with sand.

Bhargava and Bhargava (2005) studied the effect of paper mill effluent on

seed germination and seedling growth of Vicia faba. They found considerable

increase in growth and yield at lower and decreased growth and yield at higher

concentrations of the paper mill effluent. Effluent concentration promoted both seed

germination and seeding growth at 5% concentration and higher concentration inhibit

both seed germination and seedling growth. The observation also indicated organ

specific differences in the growth of seedlings in presence of different concentrations

of paper mill effluent.

Himabindu et al. (2005) in their study to see the effect of paper board mill

effluents on biochemical characteristics of rice reported that owing to the higher

content of nutrients like Mg, Ca, S, K and Cu in effluents which are useful in the

29

synthesis of pigments. They found that Chlorophyll-a and b were enhanced in effluent

irrigated plant over the control. Significant increase in total chlorophyll and

carotenoids was also recorded.

A study was carried out by Kumar (2005) to see the impact of paper mill

effluent on germination percentage and seedling growth of Phaseolus aureus with

different concentrations of effluent. The results showed that lower concentration was

in favour of germination and seedling growth while there was gradual decrease in

germination and seedling growth on higher concentration. The maximum inhibition in

seed germination and seedling growth was found in pure effluent.

Malla et al. (2005) in their study to see the effect of paper mill effluent on

germination of green gram found that the effluent significantly inhibited germination

of root and shoot length. The biochemical injury did not appear spontaneously but

with the increase in effluent treatment there is reduction in observed biochemical

parameters which are negatively correlated. The shoots of the seedlings were found to

be resistant; whereas roots of the seedlings susceptible to paper mill effluent

treatment.

Effect of paper mill industry effluent on chlorophyll content of some

medicinal plants was studied by Sharma et al. (2005). They found that the chlorophyll

content showed a decreasing trend in the selected plants Colotropis procera R. Br.

and Solanum xanthocarpum Schard & Wendl. growing around the industry, under the

impact of paper mill effluent as compared to plant irrigated with normal water.

Tyagi et al. (2005) studied the impact of paper mill industry effluent on

germination and early growth performance of Achyaranthes aspera Linn. and Ricinus

communis. They found that the germination was completely inhibited at 25% dilution

in Ricinus communis whereas it was delayed up to 7th day of treatment in

Achyranthes aspera. The root length was greatly inhibited in 50% and 100% dilution.

The study revealed that in general amongst treated sets the shoot length and root

length, fresh wt. and dry wt. of the selected medicinal plant were maximum with 50%

dilution on 5th, 7th and 9th day but lower than the control.

2.2.10. Textile and Dyeing Industry

Kumawat et al. (2001) studied effect of dye industry effluent on germination

and growth performance of two winter season (rabi) crops namely, wheat and

30

chickpea and reported less adverse effect on germination at lower concentration, but

pronounced effect on growth of the different crop cultivars. Genotypic variability with

respect to tolerance were also noticed which have suggested selection of appropriate

cultivars for cultivation in areas where crop is likely to receive irrigation water

containing dye industry effluent.

Gupta and Bishwas (2005) investigated the effect of effluent of a dye industry

at Varanasi (India) on the seed germination, seedling growth and chlorophyll content

of Withania somnifera. They found that the increasing concentration of the effluent

induced gradual reduction in the germination percentage and seedling growth.

Physico-chemical characteristic of the dyeing industry effluent were also analysed.

Rajeshwari et al. (2005) reported effects of effluents from a medium sized dye

house on plant growth and soil characteristics. They found that diluted effluent

enhanced the plant growth while deleterious effects were noticed at higher levels.

Accumulation of various substances was also formed in the soil. In general the

effluent was not suitable for irrigation.

In order to assess as to whether treated textile effluent could be safely used to

irrigate some winter vegetables, experiments were conducted under controlled

conditions in growth room by Rehman et al. (2008). Varying levels of treated and

untreated textile effluents were applied to germinating seeds of some winter

vegetables and their effect was assessed on germination and early growth stage using

seed germination, growth, and biochemical attributes. From the results, it was obvious

that textile effluent reduced seed germination and early growth of all vegetables.

However, this effect was more pronounced at the highest concentration of textile

effluent. Furthermore, treated textile effluent did not show any inhibitory effect on

seed germination of all vegetables. Photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a and

b, and protein contents were higher in the leaves of all vegetable plants irrigated with

treated textile effluent than those of supplied with untreated textile effluents. It has

been observed that heavy metals were lower in concentration in treated textile effluent

as compared with untreated textile effluent. However, germination and growth

responses of all three vegetables were different to treated or untreated textile

effluents. Furthermore, the Raphanus sativus ranked as tolerant followed by Brassica

campastris and Brassica napus based on germination and growth responses.

31

Researchers further concluded that in view of shortage of water, textile effluent could

safely be used for irrigation to vegetables after proper processing.

Ogunwenmo et al. (2010) studied effects of brewery, textile and paint effluent

on seed germination of two leafy vegetables (Amaranthus hybridus and Celosia

argentea) belonging to family Amaranthaceae through soaking of seeds in effluents

(50 and 100% concentrations) and observed differential response for duration of

soaking and effluent concentrations for two vegetables. They suggested that industrial

effluent had negative effect on seed germination therefore effluents should not be

used for irrigation without treatment.

2.2.11. Dairy Industry

Bhatnagar and Gupta (2002) studied nature and quality of soil impaired by dairy

effluents to ascertain the feasibility of use of the effluents for establishment and

growth of trees and forage crops suited to the desert region. The impact of the

effluents on soils was studied by examining the physico-chemical characteristics of

soil (treated and virgin soil) in comparison to due standards use for irrigation of soils.

Arora et al. (2005) studied physicochemical and bacteriological characteristics

of Aachal Dairy mill effluent and its effects on seed germination of some agricultural

crops. They found that effluent was highly polluted and carry high load of organic

contents as evident by total absence of dissolved oxygen and enhanced value of total

solids.

Gaikar et al. (2010) studied the impact of various concentrations (viz. 10, 20,

30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100%) of Dairy effluent on seed germination and early

seedling growth of soybean. It was observed that increase in effluent concentration

there was a corresponding decrease in % germination but seedling growth gradually

increased up to 50% effluent concentration. Whereas 10% dilution of effluent

enhanced seed germination and 100 % effluent completely inhibit both, seed

germination and seedling growth. They suggested that the effluent could be used as

liquid fertilizer up to 50% dilution.

2.2.12. Battery Industry

In the study of Kumar et al. (2009) on battery industry effluent’s effect on

Raphanus sativus L. and Trigonella foenumgracum L. it was observed that effective

concentration of the effluent for certain degree of inhibition was different but both the

32

plants had a reduced seed germination and reduced radicle growth with increase in

concentration. The germination percentage of seeds showed non-significant increase

at 25% effluent while all other treatments showed inhibition of germination.

2.2.13. Metal Industry

Tmam Khasim et al. (1994) studied the effect of chromium translocation from

farm soil contaminated with chromate industrial effluents into plants. In this study

farm soil samples contaminated with industrial chromium were studied for its

translocation and accumulation pattern in different plant parts of Arachis hypoegea

(peanut plant) and Cicer arietinum L. (gram plant) at different growth periods. The

total chromium accumulation pattern in both the plant species was found in roots,

leaves, shoots and seeds. The most edible part of the plants showed least or

insignificant accumulation of chromium irrespective proximity to root.

Jain et al. (1994) investigated the effect of different concentrations of heavy

metals on root nodulation in Vigna anguiculata. Pot experiments were performed to

evaluate the variation in root nodulation when different concentration of heavy metals

was present. Nodulation was found to be the best in presence of lead and least in the

presence of mercury.

Islam et al. (2006) studied the impact of industrial effluents on plant growth

and soil properties from an aluminum plant at Bangladesh. For this purpose a pot

experiment was conducted with rice and grasses grown on normal agricultural and

contaminated soils (treated with industrial effluent) to evaluate the effect of the

effluents on soil and plant growth. The contaminated soil exerted significant (p≤0.05)

negative effects on the growth, straw yield and nutrition of rice and grass grown on it.

The more reduction (reduction over control, ROC: 55 to 67% for rice and 30 to 68%

for grass) of straw dry matter yields of rice at different stages was determined as

compared to grass grown on contaminated soil. The contents of N, P and K in the rice

plants grown on the contaminated soil were decreased by 28, 32 and 65%,

respectively. While increased (increase over normal agricultural soil, i.e. control:

IOC) S and Na contents in rice by 55 and 1010% but decreased the S and Na contents

in grass by 200 and 114%, respectively. Available N was determined 12 to 22 times

higher in normal agricultural soil, while available S content was obtained 3 to 5 times

33

higher in contaminated soil at different time of sampling. Type of crop showed no

influence on N, P and S status of the soils.

Kumar (2006) reported the effect of steel factory effluent on the seed

germination and seedling growth of Phaseolus mungo cv.T9 and showed that

increasing concentration of effluent induced a gradual decrease in germination

percentage. The maximum seedling growth occurred in 25% concentration of effluent

and minimum at 100%.

2.2.14. Mixed Industries

Ravichandran and Kannan (1993) studied the impact of industrial effluent

from dye and match industry on the growth and metabolism of Phaseolus mungo L.

The analysis of dye and match industrial effluents revealed that they are highly

polluted. A study of the impact of these effluents on the growth and metabolism of

Phaseolus mungo L. showed that percent germination and seedling length decreased

with an increase in concentration of these effluents. There was a reduction in fresh

weight and biomass accumulation (dry weight) that paralleled a decline in pigment

content of the plant. This may be due to the degradation of chlorophyll caused by

increased peroxidase activity. The soluble protein and in vivo nitrate reductase activity

followed a declining trend, while the level of L-proline showed an increasing trend

with an increase in concentration of these effluents. The increase in leaf nitrate

content at higher concentrations of effluents may be due to the high nitrate content in

these effluents. Comparing these two industrial effluents, the effluent from the dye

industry was found to be more toxic to the plant than that of the effluent from the

match industry.

Vijayarengan and Lakshmanachary (1994) studied differential nickel tolerance

in green gram cultivars. They reported that soaking the seeds of four green gram

cultivars in aqueous solution of nickel sulphate at 50 mg/ lt for 12 hours, prior to

sowing, exhibited cultivar specific differences on the growth and yield reduction.

Among the four cultivars, KM 2 was the most sensitive, ADT2 and ADT 3 were

intermediate in sensitivity and AG 2160 was the least sensitive to nickel treatment.

Sharma and Habib (1996) analyzed various parameters of rubber factory

effluent and observed high magnitude of pollution. Various parameters, viz., pH,

34

BOD, COD, chloride, free CO2, oil and grease violated tolerance limits. TSS, TDS

and heavy metals like Cr, Pb, Zn, Fe and minerals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, S04, P04 and

Total N2 indicated organic and inorganic load. Concentration of Ca, K, P04 and Total

N2, crude protein and ether extract was significantly lower in the seeds of effluent

treated cultivar Pant P 5 of Pisum sativum.

Ghimire and Bajracharya (1996) in their study on three different industrial

effluents viz. carpet dyeing, tannery and steel reported that the effluents of carpet

dyeing industry possessed comparatively low concentration of various ions with

moderate range of pH whereas the effluents of tannery and steel industries possessed

high concentrations of metallic as well as non-metallic components, with extreme

range of pH and high conductivity value. Al, Cr, Na, ammonical nitrogen and

chlorides were present in high concentrations in tannery effluents. Similarly, Al, Cr,

Zn, Fe and ammonical nitrogen were present in excess in steel effluent.

Prasanthi and Rao (1998) studied the effect of industrial effluents and polluted

waters on germination of crops. They conducted studies to evaluate the effects of

industrial effluents and polluted waters on seed germination of crops. Two effluent

samples and two wastewater (polluted) samples were collected from Kattedan

Industrial Development area, Hyderabad and a bioassay test was conducted. The

effluents and wastewaters were unsuitable for irrigation and there is a need to treat

and dispose of them scientifically.

The effects of multiple industrial-pollutant sources on the groundwater system

were evaluated in the Industrial Development Area (IDA) of Medak district, Andhra

Pradesh (India). The quality of groundwater in the region has been affected negatively

due to the discharge of effluents on open land and into ponds, tanks, and streams.

Water samples from surface-water bodies, dug wells, and bore wells were analyzed

for their major ion concentrations. The high values of electrical conductivity (EC) and

concentrations of Na+, Ca

2+, Cl

–, and HCO3

– indicate the impact of industrial

effluents. Based on the hydrochemistry, the groundwater is classified into various

types, such as sodium-chloride, sodium-bicarbonate, calcium-chloride, and

magnesium-chloride, and its suitability for drinking and irrigation has been found to

be hazardous (Subramanyam and Yadaiah, 2001).

35

Shukry (2001) conducted an experimental study to study the effect of

industrial effluents polluting the river Nile on growth, metabolism and productivity of

two crop species, wheat (Triticium aestivum) and faba bean (Vicia faba). Pot

experiments using loamy soil were conducted to evaluate the effect of irrigation with

industrial effluents on growth, uptake on growth, uptake of nutrients and yield of

wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Giza 164) as a monocot and faba bean (Vicia faba cv.

Giza 461) as a dicot plant. Also, irrigation by industrial effluents in combination with

vesicular-arvesicular mycorrhiza (VAM) was used in trying to use a biological control

to overcome the harmful effects of heavy metals pollution. Irrigation of plants with

industrial effluents leads to marked changes in growth criteria depending on plant

and/or the stage of growth. Industrial wastewater led also to marked changes in total

carbohydrates and nitrogen in both shoots and roots. On the other hand, combination

of industrial waste water with VAM caused an increase in the total carbohydrates and

total nitrogen in shoots and roots of both wheat and bean plants. The yield

components in wheat and bean were significantly increased with industrial effluents,

but the biochemical concentrations were different. In wheat, the carbohydrate

concentrations were increased but protein- N and total-N were decreased, however,

mineral contents, especially Zn were increased. The reverse response was recorded

with VAM. For bean the opposite occurred. Generally, bean plants were more

sensitive to pollution with heavy metals, than those of wheat however this could

influence be overcome by using VAM with irrigation.

Rajkhowa and Barua (2001) studied effect of foaming water on germination

and seedling growth of some cereals and pulses and revealed significant reduction in

seed germination and growth of seedlings due to formation water. Increase in the

dilution percentage of foaming water to the extent of 50-75 per cent showed

significant improvement in seed germination and growth of seedlings of different

crops. Authors have advocated utilization of formation water for irrigation purpose

after proper treatment and dilution to the extent of 75 per cent.

Crowe et al. (2002) studied the effects of an industrial effluent on plant

colonization and on the germination and post-germination growth of seeds of

terrestrial and aquatic plants. The vast volumes of process-treated waters (effluent)

from major oil sands industrial companies in Alberta (Canada) are held within large

dyed tailings ponds. Toward testing viable options for reclamation, various

36

hummock–wetlands systems have been constructed; in addition, natural wetlands

(inhabited by obligate wetland plant species) have become established as a result of

seeping of the effluents held within the large dyked ponds. Vegetation surveys

conducted on and around the industrial site revealed that the constructed wetlands

associated with the dyke drainage (effluent treated with phosphorous) and

consolidated tails (CT; effluent treated with gypsum) had low biodiversity and were

not invaded by many aquatic plants. Although the natural wetland was also not

invaded by many aquatic species, it was found to be as diverse as the reference

wetlands (i.e. off-site wetlands not exposed to the effluents). Exposure to oil sands

effluents had an inhibitory effect on the germination (percent and/or rate) of several

plant species (tomato, clover, wheat, rye, pea, reed canary grass); clover and tomato

seed germination were most affected. Two treatments in particular (effluents from the

natural on-site wetland and the CT constructed wetland), delayed germination, and

also led to reduced fresh weight of seedlings of tomato, wheat, clover and loblolly

pine. The osmolarity of the effluents associated with the natural on-site wetland and

CT constructed wetland were 712 and 728 mOs/kg, respectively substituting these

effluents with solutions of polyethylene glycol of the same osmotic potentials had a

greater inhibitory effect on germination rate. The negative effects of the effluents on

seed germination may account for the paucity of aquatic species that invaded the oil

sands impacted wetlands. This factor will also be critical in determining the long-term

feasibility of hummock–wetland systems.

Municipality sewage and effluents from Dairy Farming and textile industry

were chosen to assess the germination activity of pea (Pisum sativum L. var. Arkel) by

Shrestha and Niroula (2003). The effluents from Municipality Sewage and Dairy

Farming inhibited seed germination while textile industry effluent promoted. The

effluent from Municipality Sewage and Dairy Farming delayed seed germination

during early hours i.e., 24 hours of sowing. The inhibition was maximum in the

Municipality Sewage effluent where as the germination percentage never exceeded

48% even after 120 hours of sowing. The dilution experiment revealed that the

effluent of Municipality Sewage was still inhibitory up to 25% (v/v) concentration

while the inhibitory effect of Dairy Farming was overcome at 50% (v/v)

concentration. The textile industry effluent was safe for seed germination at all

dilution.

37

Gulfraz et al. (2003) conducting a study to evaluate the suitability of industrial

effluent for irrigation purposes and their possible effects (due to heavy and trace

metals) on the germination as well as quality of agricultural crops. The effluents

(liquid waste) of five industries like textile mill, oil refinery, soap and detergent,

hydrogenated oil and rubber industry were used in this study. The results showed that

effluents from all five industries consist higher concentration of metals (Cr, Mn, Fe,

Cu, Co, Ni, As, Cd and Pb).

Nawaz et al. (2006) studied the effect of industrial effluents on seed

germination and early growth of Cicer arietinum L. Water samples were collected

from three different industries of Rawalpindi (Pakistan), which were Koh-e-Noor

Textile Mill (KNM), Marble Industry (MI) and Attock Refinery Limited (ARL). Two

different varieties of Cicer arietinum L. (P-91 and P-2000) were selected to grow in

these effluents. Physicochemical parameters {pH, temperature, Dissolved Oxygen

(DO), conductivity, turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids

(TSS) etc.} of these samples were analyzed. Both varieties were grown in different

dilutions of effluents. With the increase in effluent concentration, growth of plants

was found more affected in Koh-e-Noor mill effluent while, less effect was seen in

Marble and ARL effluents. Increase in root and shoot lengths were observed in these

effluents at different concentrations. Fresh weight was less in Koh-e-Noor mill

effluent as compared to control. Dry weights of plants were greater in most of the

treatments. Variety P-91 was more tolerant as compared to P-2000.

Pande (2006) studied physico-chemical characteristics of a brewery effluent

(Mohan Meakin’s brewery, Lunknow). Brewery effluent treated seedlings of Cajanus

cajan (Linn.) and Vigna mungo (Linn.) showed reduced seed germination, radicle

length and plumule length whereas use of diluted effluent (50% with distilled water)

produced less severe effects. The study revealed that brewery effluent use for

irrigation without proper treatment induced phytotoxic effects in plants.

Umebese and Onasanya (2007) studied the effect of Minta effluent on the

phenology, growth and yield of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp Var. Ife brown. The

effluent was highly acidic (pH 3.74) and the concentrations of Ca, Mg and SO4 were

appreciable (107.07, 351.47 and 221.11 mg L-1

, respectively). Germination of seeds

sown in effluent was delayed by a day, reduced by 2% and non-synchronous.

Phenological investigations showed that plants grown in soil watered with effluent

38

had 4-5 days delay in staking, bud formation, flower initiation, fruiting, pod ripening

and plant senescence. These plants showed significant reductions in plant height, leaf

area, shoot biomass and pod biomass (p<0.05). Furthermore, seed yield and 100 corn

weight of treated plants were low. The authors concluded that minta effluent has low

agro-potential.

A combinatorial effect of distillery and sugar factory effluents in crop plants

was studied by Nath et al. (2007). Under the reutilization and recycling strategy of

industrial effluents, treated distillery and sugar factory mixed effluent was used in

petridish culture experiments to investigate its effect on seed germination and

seedling growth in wheat, garden pea, black gram and mustard. The seed germination

and seedling growth were significantly reduced with increase in concentration of the

effluent. The fresh weight was found significantly increased in barley (1.16 g per

seedling in 25% dilution level of effluents in comparison to 0.93 in control), while

other higher dilution levels reduced it. Inhibition in fresh seedling weight was

observed in wheat, garden pea, black gram and mustard. Dry weight was found

consistently reduced or unchanged in different treatments. Total chlorophyll contents

in barley were significantly increased in different treatments (2.351 and 2.721 mg/g

fresh weight of tissue at 25, 50% dilution levels in comparison to 1.781 of control)

while in other crop it was reduced all over the treatments. Amylase activity in wheat,

garden pea, black gram and mustard was reduced in all the treatments. Only in barley

its level was enhanced from 0.76 to 0.85, 0.96, 0.81 in 25, 50, 75% dilution levels of

the effluent mixture, respectively. Based on the data of different crops barley was

found to be highly tolerant as the 25 and 50% dilution levels of combined effluents. It

showed no change in germination %, while seedling growth was increased in lower

dilution levels of combined effluent as compared to control barley>garden

pea>wheat>black gram>mustard gradually showed increased level of sensitivity,

respectively. Most detrimental effects were seen on mustard. This toxicity might be

due to excess of nutrients, beyond the limits of tolerance. Therefore, the higher

concentration of mixed effluent was not advisable for irrigation purpose, however it

could be used for irrigation purpose after proper treatment and dilution (one part

treated effluent and five parts of available irrigation water), as this dilution level was

found growth and yield promontory.

39

A multicentric study was undertaken by Industrial Toxicology Research

Centre, Lucknow (Kisku et al. 2000) for assessing productive utilization of effluent–

contaminated agricultural land, mobilization and statistical analysis of potentially

toxic elements in soil and plants of fields irrigated with mixed industrial effluent.

Total Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni and Cr were estimated in soil and plant species of

contaminated and non-contaminated sites. 18 plants species and 18 root adjacent soil

samples from contaminated Kalipur area and 11 plants species and 11 root adjacent

soil samples from uncontaminated Madhabpur area comprising major crops,

vegetables and weeds have been included in the study. It was revealed that Hibiscus

esculentus, Lycopersicon esculentum and Luffa acutangula growing in effluent–

contaminated field show mobilisation ratio <0.5 for most of the PTE (Potentially

Toxic Elements) like Cu, Pb, Ni, Cr and Cd and normal morphology. Surprisingly,

weeds in particular, show high mobilization ratio >0.5 and simultaneously exhibit

healthy gigantic morphology at the early flowering stage. Coriandrum sativum,

Raphhanus sativus, Solanum melongena, Spinace oleracea, Oryza sativum, Brassica

oleracea showed mobilization ratio >0.5 but maintained normal growth. Based on

mobilization ratio and external morphology, the authors suggested the cultivation of

plants H. esculentus, L. acutangula, L. esculentum in land irrigated with industrial

effluent. The highest and second highest enrichment factor (EF) was found for Cd and

Pb, respectively. Pearson's correlation coefficient indicated that the metal level in soil

is not the main factor governing metal uptake. This study will help in selecting plant

species for cultivation in contaminated fields.

Ahmad and Goni (2009) assessed effect of industrial effluent on the vegetable

crops it was seen that accumulation of the heavy metals in vegetables studied was

lower than the recommended maximum tolerable levels proposed by the Joint

FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (1999), with the exception of Cd

which exhibited elevated content. Uptake and translocation pattern of metal from soil

to edible parts of vegetables were quite distinguished for almost all the elements

examined.

The study of Uaboi-Egbenni et al. (2009) showed that effluents from

industries affected the time of flowering and fruiting of okra when compared with the

control. The mean number and mean weight of fruits produced were also affected,

although the extent varies from effluent to effluent. The effect was more pronounced

40

in toiletries and plastic effluents where the mean values for fruit numbers was 3 and

mean weight of 17.4 g. However, the mean weight for paint was higher than toiletries.

Cross-sections of the experimental okra plants showed that the effluent affected the

anatomical structures of the plant; the effect being more pronounced on okra grown

on MD. The anatomy of the control grown okra was not affected. The leaves of okra

grown on toiletries effluent had a less mean leaf length than those grown on the rest

effluents. The same trend was recorded for the mean leaf width. The stem length of

okra grown on paint effluent had the least mean value and hence most affected. The

highest value for all parameters studied was recorded for the control. There was a

significant difference between the means of length of leaf, stem and leaf width and

those of the control, signifying the effects which industrial effluents could have on the

growth and productivity of plants.

The influence of industrial effluents on intertidal benthic communities in

Panweol, Kyeonggi Bay (Yellow Sea) on the west coast of Korea was studied by

Young et al. (1995). They found that species number and density have decreased

sharply compared with values available for these communities before this area was

heavily industrialized. At a site near the outfall of a sewage treatment plant almost all

pre-existing macrobenthic fauna have disappeared, and the capitellid polychaete

Heteromastus filiformis predominates. Even at a distance of 4 km, species numbers

have decreased rapidly from 22 in 1984 to 4 in 1992 and a previously dominant

polychaete, Perinereis aibuhitensis, declined from 86 individuals m−2

in 1984 to 14

individuals’ m−2

in 1992. High sediment levels of copper (70–323 μg g−1

dry wt), lead

(33–83 μg g−1

) and cadmium (0.5–3 μg g−1

) indicate that industrial effluents have

caused significant sediment contamination. High levels of copper were detected in the

tissues of H. filiformis (450 μg g−1

) and P. aibuhitensis (240 μg g−1

). Bioaccumulation

of copper in the polychaetes is discussed in relation to the catastrophic collapse of the

benthic communities.

Sik et al. (2009) studied the effects of different concentrations of water on

both incoming and outgoing in central biological and chemical wastewater treatment

plant in Manisa (Turkey) organized industrial zone (MOIZ) on the Allium cepa L. root

meristems, having been rooted in distilled water for 48 h. The union bulbs were kept

in the 100% concentrations of the refined water (RW) and of 10, 25, 50 and 100%

concentrations of unrefined water (UW). Distilled water was used for the control

41

samples. It was determined that wastewater reduced the rate of the mitotic division of

different concentrations and increased the mitotic anomalies. Mitotic index was found

to be 33.8, 31.2, 23.6 and 16.7% in the control group, RW, 10% concentration of the

UW, and 25% concentration of the UW, respectively. On the other hand, the rates of

Mitosis / (Anaphase + Telophase) were 0.23, 0.28, 0.42, 0.71 in the control group,

RW, % concentration of the UW, and 25% concentration of the UW, respectively.

Plant growth was interrupted in the 50 and 100% concentrations of the UW and the

mitotic division was inhibited. No anomalies were encountered in the control group.

In the RW, a low rate of anomaly was observed, while in the different concentrations

of the UW, chromosomal aberrations such as high frequency of lagging chromosome,

irregular distribution, polar slips, horizontal division and sticky chromosome were

observed.

Dhanam and Arulbalachandran (2009) conducted experiments to understand the

effect of different concentrations of TANFAC effluent on seed germination and

seedling growth of five varieties of black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper). The

TANFAC effluent is having a higher amount of organic and inorganic element. The

Physico-chemical analysis showed that it was acidic in nature. It was rich in total

suspended and dissolved solids with large amount of Biological Oxygen Demand

(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). The effluents severally affect crop

plants and soil properties when used for irrigation. The growth parameters such as

germination percentage root length shoot length, number of lateral roots, fresh weight

and dry weight were taken on 10th day. All the parameters were found to increase at

10% effluent concentration and it decrease from 25% effluent concentration onwards.

Among black gram, variety V-2 was tolerant to TANFAC effluent when compared to

other varieties.

Effects of Brewery, Textile and Paint Industry’s effluents on seed germination

of leafy vegetables-Amaranthus hybridus and Celosia argentea was studied by

Ogunwenmo et al. (2010). In order to assess the suitability or otherwise of some

industrial wastewater for irrigation purposes, germination experiment was performed

on seeds of Amaranthus hybridus and Celosia argentea presoaked in 50 and 100%

concentration of brewery, textile and paint effluent for 30 min to 3 h. Longer duration

of seeds in presoaked medium (3 h) increased germination rate (0.92) and percentage

42

(95%) of A. hybridus significantly (p<0.05) to optimum level in 50% diluted brewery

effluent. Though, the effluent generated gradual increase in germination of C.

argentea with increasing presoaking period, the maximum germination (25 and 35%)

was below the control untreated seeds (45%). Fifty percent textile effluent favoured

germination in A. hybridus up to the control level (70%) at 2 h with higher rate (0.63).

Germination decreased (45%) significantly (p<0.05) beyond 2 h. One hundred percent

and 50% textile effluent significantly decreased (p<0.05) germination in A. hybridus

(5-20%) and C. argentea (5-10%), respectively, and totally toxic to C. argentea at

100%. The rate and percentage seed germination of A. hybridus and C. argentea

decreased significantly (p<0.05) as the presoaking period increased in paint effluent

becoming toxic beyond 1 and 1½ h, respectively. Industrial effluent may be

environmentally harmful if not properly treated or diluted.

Industrial effluents from various industries had differential response on growth

and phenology of crop plants and forest tree species. However, it has been widely

suggested in all studies that effluents should be used for irrigation purpose only after

proper treatment.

2.3. Acquired toxicity in selected plant species through different industrial

effluents

Somashekar and Siddaramaiah (1991) conducted a study to evaluate

phytotoxicity tests for screening and bio-monitoring complex effluent samples. Seed

germination tests were conducted using three effluent samples from three industrial

sources. Complete inhibition of germination was, however, not observed in any case.

Zea mays and Dolichos biflorus were found to be most sensitive. There occurred a

significant difference in root/shoot length and dry weight between treated and control

samples. Results of definitive tests indicated a linear concentration-effect relation.

The study indicated that phytotoxicity tests involving higher plants have a high

potential for use in the bio-monitoring of industrial effluents because of simplicity and

sensitivity. They concluded that the test employed by them could be suitably adopted

with slight modifications for tropical conditions.

Ghimire and Bajracharya (1996)

while studying degree of toxicity effect of

three different industrial effluents, viz., carpet dyeing, tannery and steel industry on

43

seed germination and seedling growth of four different vegetables (Brasicca juncea,

B. rapa, B. oleraceae and Raphanus sativus) reported that the degree of toxicity

depended both upon the nature and concentration of chemicals present in the effluents

as well as the type of the vegetable seeds. It was found that the toxicity of the effluent

from carpet dyeing industry was less as compared to the effluents from other two

industries. However, the toxicity of tannery effluent was more pronounced on time of

initiation and percentage seed germination, while the toxicity of steel effluent was

more distinctly associated with the inhibition of root growth. The sensitivity response

of four types of vegetable seeds to be toxicants of three different industrial effluents

was also different. In general, B. juncea and B. rapa were comparatively susceptible,

whereas, R. sativus and B. oleraceae were relatively resistant to the toxicants of

industrial effluent. The investigation showed that growth parameters such as seed

germination and seedling growth can be used to assess the degree of toxicity of

industrial effluents.

In an experimental study, Gomez et al. (1998) studied the effect of nickel (Ni)

on the nutrition of tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum cv. Marmande). Dry

matter weights of roots, shoots, and fruit were also studied. Plants, receiving 5, 15,

and 30 mg Ni L-1

, were grown in nutrient solution, and roots, stems plus branches,

leaves, and fruit were analyzed at different developmental stages for essential

nutrients. The presence of Ni in nutrient medium affected plant growth, decreasing

dramatically dry matter yield compared to control plants. This plant reduction was

likely due to the disturbances and imbalances of the different essential mineral

elements. The general effect was a decrease in the absorption and accumulation of

these nutrients. The nitrogen (N) content in the plant increased significantly with

increasing Ni treatments, showing a synergetic effect between Ni and N. A positive

interaction between Ni and potassium (K) was also found. In this way, high levels of

Ni in solution caused an increase in K uptake and, however, a decrease in sodium

(Na) absorption (antagonism Na/K). Since, Ni is taken up as Ni2+

, its absorption in

high concentrations decreased significantly the uptake of other divalent cations, such

as Mg2+

, Fe2+

, Mn2+

, Cu2+

, and Zn2+

, with manganese (Mn) being the nutrient showing

the highest restriction in the whole plant (roots and shoots).

Pathak et al. (1999) studied the effect of soil amendment with distillery

effluent for wheat and rice cultivation. Distillery effluent contains a considerable

44

amount of plant nutrients. In a field study soil amendment with diluted post

methylation distillery effluent increased the yield of wheat and rice grown in

sequence. Organic carbon and available potassium content of post harvest soils were

also increased. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, bulk density and volumetric water

content of the soils improved with effluent application. There was no change in pH

after harvest of wheat and rice. The study showed that the effluent could be used as

soil amendment. However, the EC of soil also increased indicating the possibility of

salinity development in the long run with higher levels of effluent application.

An assessment of industrial water of an electronic component manufacturing

unit with electroplating and its subsequent effects on soil and plants receiving the

effluent was done by Burman et al. (2001). The physico-chemical parameters of the

effluent samples showed higher value than that of ground water. The treated effluent

was within the permissible limit. Microtox test was conducted and determined the

degree of toxicity of untreated, treated effluents as well as the water sample collected

at effluent discharge point of river (confluence point). The physico-chemical

parameters of the soil samples were not changed due to irrigation of the treated

effluent, but the concentration of metals were comparatively higher than the control

soil. Higher accumulation of metals was found in the plant parts in naturally growing

weeds and cultivated crop plant irrigated with treated effluent.

Muthusamy and Jayabalan (2001) studied the effect of sago and sugar factory

effluents on physiological and biochemical contents of Gossypium hirsutum L. Plants

were irrigated with 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of effluents of both factories. At lower

concentration (25%) of sugar factory effluents had stimulatory effect on all

biochemical contents. Moreover, all concentration of sago factory effluents was found

to have inhibitory effect on all biochemical contents except proline content which

increased with increasing concentration of both the effluents. Plants growing on

adjacent to sago and sugar factories may accumulate the heavy metals found in both

the effluents, at higher levels in plant products and if consumed may have similar

effect on living organisms.

Singh and Joshi (2001) assessed genotoxic effect of tannery effluent (collected

during the rainy season) in Allium cepa and observed depression in mitotic division to

considerable extent in the root meristem. The capability of treated cells to recover

from the mitotic depression declined gradually. Total number of abnormal cells and

45

cells with non clastogenic abnormalities recovered more than those possessing

clastogenic ones and this difference in recovery behaviour was attributed to the

differential degree of damage caused to the cellular and chromosomal systems by the

two classes of aberrations.

Comparative effects of effluents from six major industries viz. Diesel Power

House, Hetaunda Iron and Steel, Hulas Wire, Himalaya Soap and Chemicals, Leather

Industry, Shah Udyog (textile industry) and sub-metropolitan Sewage of Biratnagar

on germination and seedling growth of rice and black gram were studied by Niroula

(2003). Effluent of Himalaya Soap and Chemicals showed toxic lethal effect on both

the test crops. On germination rice remained more sensitive and susceptible to the

toxic effects of industrial effluents but black gram proved to be more tolerant.

Effluents of Diesel power House and Shah Udyog remained toxic for seedling growth

of black gram as their effects were significant while Leather Industry effluent showed

toxic effect on rice for germination as well as seedling growth.

In the study of Gulfraz et al. (2003) on metal contamination in wheat crops

(Triticum aestivum L.) irrigated with industrial effluents, it was found that the

germination of crops was more effected with the effluents of textile mill followed by

soap and detergent, oil refinery and hydrogenated oil, where as less effects were

observed from effluents of rubber industry. Therefore, it was observed that effluent is

not only unfit for irrigation but also for domestic uses due to presence of heavy and

toxic metals and other harmful pollutants.

Shanker et al. (2005) reviewed the chromium toxicity in plants. The toxic

effects of chromium toxicity on plant growth and development include alternation in

the germination process as well as in the growth of roots, stem and leave, and

suggested that presence of chromium in higher quantity may effect total dry metal

production in different plant species. They further reported presence of heavy metals

in the external environment, which leads to different kind of changes in the growth

and developmental pattern of the plant. The plant growth and development are

essential process of life and propagation of the different plant species and these

processes are continuous in nature and depend on external resources present in the

soil and air.

46

Sinha et al.

(2006) studied the implication of metal contamination of

agricultural soil on vegetables and crops in an area of industrial complex Jajmau,

Kanpur (India). They found that accumulation of toxic metal, chromium; in higher

quantity in leafy and food bearing vegetables then the vegetables where edible part is

develop underground. Sinha et. al. also recommended the cultivation of some

vegetables like bitter guard, egg plant, jack tree, maize, okra, etc. in these industrial

areas.

Pandey (2006) studied the accumulation of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and

Zn) in Raphanus sativus L. and Spinacia oleracia. Plants of S. oleracea and R.

sativus were raised in uncontaminated alluvial soil using pot culture method and

irrigated with effluent from electro plating industry showed visual toxic symptoms

like stunted growth, necrosis followed by chlorosis in leaves and finally death of the

plants. Severity of toxicity was less in plants treated with diluted effluent (50%).

Sahu (2008) performed toxicity assessment of tannery effluent in terms of

percent phytotoxicity and shoot/root dry weight ratio. The effluent used in the study

was collected from the outlet of an effluent treatment plant situated in the Jajmau area

of Kanpur, India. Three varieties each of rice, pulses and oil seeds containing different

kinds of reserve food materials, i. e., starch, protein and fat were taken for the toxicity

study. The accumulations of heavy metals, i.e., Cr, Cu, Zn, and Ni, by these different

crop varieties through pot culture irrigated with effluent were estimated at maturity.

The concentration of heavy metals in the effluent was found to be Cr = 0.135, Cu =

0.065, Zn = 0.052, and Ni = 0.036 mg/L. The maximum concentration found in the

plant tissue was seen in the mustard variety RS 30, i. e., Cr = 15.2, Cu = 4.4, Zn = 3.2,

and Ni = 2.6 g/g dry weight (d.w.) and the minimum concentration was found in red

gram ‘Bahar’ (Cr = 8.5, Cu = 2.0, Zn = 1.6 g/g d.w.), whereas, 0.98 g/g d.w. of Ni

was found in the Surya variety of rice. The percent phytotoxicity was found to be in

the range of 10.4 to 25.6% amongst the different test varieties. The average percent

phytotoxicity was found to be highest in rice followed by oilseed and pulses. The

shoot/root dry weight ratio ranged between 10.82 to 14.22, with the highest value seen

for rice (Pant Dhan 10) and the lowest for a pulse (red gram var. Bahar). The results

revealed that cultivation of these crops irrigated with the tannery effluent may pose a

potential risk to humans as well as animals because of their bioaccumulation

properties and ability to transfer metals from one trophic level to the next trophic level

47

through the food chain. Since the percent phytotoxicity and shoot/root dry weight

ratio behaves in a similar manner for the effluent, these parameters can be considered

for the assessment of toxicity of industrial effluents.

In a study conducted by Pandey et al. (2008) to assess the pollution level in

distillery effluent and its phytotoxic effect on seed germination and early growth of

maize and rice, it was found that the emerging leaves of the seedlings developed

visible effects of toxicity, some of which resembled the symptoms of nickel toxicity.

The observations suggested that the effluent, as discharged from the distillery, carry a

heavy load of pollutants. Its discharge into the river poses a potential threat to the

aquatic life, particularly during the summer months when the water flow in the river is

drastically reduced. The distillery effluent is also harmful for irrigating crops grown

along the drain carrying it.

Chandra et al. (2009) studied accumulation and distribution of toxic metals

(Cu, Cd, Cr, Zn, Fe, Ni, Mn, and Pb) and their biochemical effect on wheat and

mustard plants irrigated with mixed distillery and tannery effluents. Analyses of plant

samples cultivated with effluent indicated the maximum accumulation of Fe

(340 mg kg−1

in wheat root and 560 mg kg−1

in mustard leaves) followed by Mn and

Zn in root > shoot > leaves > seeds. Maximum increase in photosynthetic pigment

was observed between 30 and 60 days while protein content was found maximum

between 60 and 90 days of growth period in both plants. An increase in

malondialdehyde, cysteine and ascorbic acid antioxidants content was also observed

in root and leaves of treated plants up to 60 and 90 days of growth. They concluded

that wheat and mustard plants irrigated with effluents without adequate treatment are

health hazards for environment, humans and animals.

In a study by Nagajyoti (2009), a pot culture experiment was conducted to

study the effect of biomass power plant effluent on seed germination, seedling growth

and chlorophyll content of green gram (variety LGG 460) were estimated at different

effluent concentrations and time intervals. It was seen that at higher concentrations of

the effluent, toxic effects were observed from 20th day. They suggested that the

effluent could be used safely for green gram cultivation, only after proper treatment

and dilution.

48

In the study, Kumar et al. (2009) on battery industry effluent Raphanus sativus

and Trigonella foenumgracum, the percent phytotoxicity was found increased with

increase in the concentration of effluent and ranged between 33.27 to 86.36 and 10.64

to 55.06% for Raphanus sativus and Trigonella foenumgracum, respectively.

However, the degree of inhibition was more in case of Raphanus sativus as compared

to Trigonella foenumgracum. The findings indicated that Trigonella foenumgracum

had a higher level of tolerance to the effluent as compared to Raphanus sativus during

early growth phase of the seedlings.

Umebese et al. (2009) studied the impact of combined industrial effluent on

metal accumulation, nitrate reductase activity and yield of two cultivars of Vigna

unguiculata (L.) Walp. Combined industrial effluent from Ikeja Central Treatment

Plant, Lagos, was used to irrigate Vigna unguiculata L. Walp (cowpea), cultivars

IT89KD-349 (white) and IT84E-124 (red). The effluent was alkaline (pH 9.8) and had

a significantly higher concentration of Ca (11.53 mg L-1

), NO3 (83.20 mg L-1

), SO4

(22.73 mg L-1

), Cl (15.45 mg L-1

) and Cd (2.16 mg L-1

) than the experimental soil.

Nitrate reductase activity was enhanced almost throughout the period of growth of

both treated cultivars but for the peak at 35 DAP shown by control white. There was a

corresponding increase in the net assimilation rate and a significant increase (p≤0.05)

in the biomass of leaves and pods of treated red cowpea but only the pods of treated

white cowpea. Heavy metal uptake by seeds of treated plants was negligible and this

may be attributed to the high accumulation of Ca by these plants. Undiluted combined

industrial effluent has good agro potential in the cultivation of red cowpea.

It can be concluded on the basis of review of literature that different types of

toxicity symptoms are produced by various industrial effluents. Whenever, pollution

level was high plants had shown very stunted growth to mortality, therefore it has

been suggested that effluents should be allowed to discharge in water streams and soil

only after proper treatment. Effluent treatment plants should be compulsorily installed

/commissioned in all industries to save plants and environment for future generations.

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