chapter 2 unfinished rrl

7/26/2019 Chapter 2 Unfinished RRL

1/22

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

No quick x to Metro Manilas ood proble

August 4, 2013 by JHOANNA BALLARAN of Manila Times

t!an"e" #ommute!s an" moto!ists, stalle" #a!s in t$e mi""le of t$e%oo"e" st!eets, s#$ools #alling o& #lasses' T$ese s#enes !e#u! all o(e! Met!oManila afte! a $ea(y !ain, but is most gla!ing along )s*ana Boule(a!" inManila, an" A!aneta an" +ong!essional a(enues in ue-on +ity'

.loo"ing in Met!o Manila $as be#ome a linge!ing t$o!n not only on t$ego(e!nment/s si"e but on t$e *ubli#/s as ell'

!ban *lanne!s lien Met!o Manila to a #logge" sin t$at o(e!%os

$en t$e fau#et is left o*en'Aut$o!ities an" e*e!ts *oint to "i&e!ent #auses of t$e *!oblem

global a!ming, "efo!estation, *ollution, lost ate!ays, #logge" "!ains,info!mal settle!s' 5t is a #om*le an" a $isto!i#al *!oblem t$at nee"s a long6te!m solution foun"e" on a ell6!esea!#$e", lo#ali-e" stu"y'

Afte! Ty*$oon On"oy !a(age" t$e National +a*ital Region in 2007,t$e!e e!e nume!ous *!o*osals on $o to "eal it$ Met!o Manila/s *e!ennial%oo"ing *!oblem' )(en t$e 8o!l" Ban $as eig$e" in, gi(ing 91': million tot$e ;e*a!tment of


2/22

atu!ay sai" st!u#tu!es su#$ as !oofs, buil"ings an" #on#!ete !oa"s*!e(ent !ainate! f!om being abso!be" by t$e soil'

C5n an u!ban lan"s#a*e $e!e *e!meable su!fa#es o! a!eas a!e limite",t$e !ainfall ill usually %o abo(e t$ese su!fa#es,D atu!ay sai"' CT$at/s t$e*!oblem of t$e u!ban lan"s#a*eE t$e!e a!e a lot of im*e!(ious su!fa#es')(e!yt$ing is #on#!ete'D

Buil"ings an" ot$e! im*e!meable mate!ials a!e (e!y fast to gene!ateCsu!fa#e !uno&D o! t$e ate! %o t$at #annot be abso!be" by t$e soil' T$issu!fa#e !uno& %os along #on#!ete !oa"s an" si"eals' 5"eally, t$is ate!oul" go to t$e "!ainage, t$en t$e see!, to #anals, an" t$en out to t$e !i(e!st!eam toa!"s t$e o#ean'

Be#ause of t$e *oo! #onst!u#tion of st!eets, t$e "!ainages, an" seagesystem in#a*able of $ol"ing su#$ amount of ate!a"" to t$at ot$e!obst!u#tions lie ga!bage, built6o(e! natu!al ate!ays, an" info!mal settle!s

in some #asest$e !ainfall $as no$e!e to go to'

5n a lo#al stu"y #ite" by en' Ral*$ Re#to, 41'02 *e!#ent of 2F3 natu!alate!ays in Met!o Manila a!e "ea" o! Cg$osts,D $a(ing been bu!ie" un"e!buil"ings an" !oa"s "e#a"es ago'

An eam*le gi(en by blogge!


3/22

$o often t$e Met!o*olitan Manila ;e(elo*ment Aut$o!ity #lean t$e este!oso! !elo#ate t$e suatte!s along ate!ays, if t$e *!oblem of an a!ea isst!eet6le(el %oo"ing, t$en "enitely not$ing ill $a**en'

atu!ay belie(es a #ase6to6#ase stu"y must be "one' u#$ a stu"y #analso *!e(ent t$e unne#essa!y "is*la#ement of u!ban *oo! #ommunities,sin#e not all info!mal settle!s along ate!ays a!e to blame fo! %oo"ing'

.o! eam*le, in I67 t!eet, 8est Iamias, ue-on +ity, suatte!"ellings besi"e a #!ee fa#e "emolition be#ause it $as been #onsi"e!e" aC"ange! -oneD by t$e lo#al go(e!nment'

But Roge! +unta*ay, :3, $as li(e" in 8est Iamias fo! mo!e t$an 4Fyea!s' He sai" t$ey ne(e! e*e!ien#e" massi(e %oo"s' )(en "u!ing On"oy,%oo"ing in 8est Iamias as minimal, +unta*ay sai"'

CT$e lan" $e!e e a!e stan"ing u*on no is ma"e of a"obeit/s (e!y

stu!"y,D $e sai"' A##o!"ing to t$e ba!angay o#ials, t$e a!ea ill be tu!ne"into a *a! alt$oug$ #ity enginee!s foun" t$at it is not suitable fo! su#$ *lan'

T$e 40 families li(ing in t$e a!ea ill be !elo#ate" to Montalban, Ri-alo! Biste(ille in


4/22

5t also *lans to !e$abilitate an" "e(elo* t$e ate!ays an" !i(e! basinsa!oun" Met!o Manila, lie !egions 555 an" 5GA' 5t ill also !e(i(e t$e "!e"gingan" t$e #onst!u#tion of "ies in t$e o(e!%oing Laguna Lae'

T$e %oo" mitigation *!o?e#t is one of t$e go(e!nment/s most ambitiousto "ate' A**!o(e" last yea!, it an" ill be nis$e" by 203:' T$e *!o?e#t iso!t$ of na!!o ate!ays an" #anals

t$at oul" "!ain !ainate! #onst!u#te" an" mo"ie" "u!ing t$e *anis$
http://www.philstar.com/author/Hrvoje%20Hranjski/http://www.philstar.com/author/Hrvoje%20Hranjski/


5/22

#olonial *e!io" $a(e been lost, #emente" o! *a(e" o(e!, sai" a!#$ite#t an"

u!ban *lanne!


6/22

T$e most fe!o#ious sto!m to e(e! $it Manila as Ty*$oon Ietsana in

2007, $i#$ "um*e" mo!e t$an a mont$s o!t$ of !ain in 12 $ou!s it$

%oo"ate!s !ea#$ing F mete!s =23 feet>' T$at an" a se#on" ty*$oon on its

$eels ille" about 1,000 *eo*le an" #ause" mo!e t$an 91 billion in "amage'

Last yea!, t$e annual monsoon an" t$un"e!sto!ms unleas$e" nonsto*

!ains o(e! eig$t "ays, %oo"ing t$e same a!eas again, "est!oying t$ousan"s

of $omes, !oa"s an" subme!ging about 70 *e!#ent of Manila'

T$is ees "eluge, b!oug$t by a monsoon an" a t!o*i#al sto!m,

"um*e" about t$e same amount !ain as Ietsana but o(e! 24 $ou!s an"

i"e! a!ea, subme!ging $alf of t$e #ity an" s$utting it "on fo! to "ays'

About a million *eo*le e!e a&e#te"'

)#essi(e logging on t$e ie!!a Ma"!e mountains no!t$ of t$e #ity $as

also ma"e t$ings o!se' T$e !ainate! !us$es "on t$e "enu"e" slo*es into

t$e

Auino $as aut$o!i-e" a *lan to !elo#ate slums f!om t$e #itys

ate!ays to ease %oo"ing'


7/22

%arful &'ects of Clo##ed Canals(

By A!ti#les Alley

luggis$ o! #logge" "!ainage system not only #ause in#on(enien#e fo!

$omeone!s but also !esults in safety an" $ealt$ issues' o, #leaning of

"!ainage systems is essential fo! $ealt$y an" safe li(ing'

+lean an" $ygieni# en(i!onment is one of t$e ey fa#to!s !es*onsible

fo! a $ealt$y li(ing' 5t $as been state" by many !esea!#$es t$at un$ygieni#

en(i!onment a&e#ts a *e!son/s $eat$' A *oo! sanitation system #auses a

negati(e im*a#t on one/s $ealt$' )n(i!onmental e*e!ts say li(ing in

un$ygieni# su!!oun"ings #an !esult in (a!ious fatal "iseases'

Ma?o!ity of $ealt$ issues a!ise be#ause of #logge" "!ainage system of$omes' 5f t$e systems o! *!o*e!ly, t$e!e is a ui# %o of ate! "on t$e

"!ain' But, in most of t$e #ases, t$e "!ain lines get #logge" be#ause of

a##umulation of unante" mate!ials lie g!ease, s#um, $ai!, foo" et#'

+logge" "!ains #an #ause (a!ious $a-a!"s lieK

Blo#e" "!ains mae $ome en(i!onment "i!ty' ;i!ty a!eas a!e *e!fe#t

b!ee"ing g!oun"s fo! mosuitoes an" ot$e! "isease #ausing inse#ts' 5f not

#leane" ui#ly, t$ese #an e(en #ause sin infe#tions, *ests, ba#te!ia,

ge!ms, mosuitoes, (i!us alle!gies an" ot$e! $a!mful "iseases' Millions ofin"i(i"uals "ie e(e!y"ay be#ause of $a!mful "iseases lie mala!ia et# $i#$

$as no be#ome a main #$allenge in t$e $ealt$ se#to!'

Blo#e" "!ains o! sloly t$us #ausing in#on(enien#e to

$omeone!s'

Besi"es #ausing t!ouble to $omeone!s, #logge" "!ains also #ause a

t$!eat to safety' ometimes, t$ese !esult in %oo"ing "u!ing t$e !ainy season$i#$ #an #ause a $uge loss of life an" *!o*e!ty'

Looing at all t$ese $a!mful #onseuen#es of blo#e" "!ains, it is

bette! to get t$em #$e#e" an" #leane" imme"iately' Many $omeone!s

mae use of (a!ious #$emi#als an" *o"e!s fo! t$is *u!*ose' To ensu!e long

life of you! "!ains an" "!ain *i*es, it is goo" to tae $el* f!om a *!ofessional


8/22

"!ain #leaning #om*any' T$e!e a!e many #om*anies $i#$ $a(e got

s*e#iali-ation in t$is el" an" *!o(i"e #ustome!s it$ bette! !esults'

o, it be#omes #lea! f!om t$e abo(e "is#ussion t$at !egula! #leaning

an" maintenan#e of "!ains is an et!emely im*o!tant tas to maintain a

$ealt$y li(ing en(i!onment an" to ensu!e t$at t$e "!ains o! e#iently'

%ealth issues related to draina#e water ana#eentBy Ma!tin ' .!its#$ of iss .e"e!al 5nstitute of Te#$nology, Su!i#$,

it-e!lan"

T$e inte!a#tions beteen "!ainage, ate! management an" $ealt$

safe an" timely manne! *lays an im*o!tant !ole in #ont!olling ate! !elate""iseases' +a!eful #ont!ol an" a**!o*!iate !euse of "!ainage ate! #an $el**!ote#t t$e en(i!onment an" o*timi-e t$e use of ate! !esou!#es'

T$e $ealt$ issues !elate" to "!ainage ate! management #an beg!ou*e" in t$!ee #atego!iesK

i' ate! !elate" (e#to!6bo!ne "iseasesEii' fae#alo!ally t!ansmitte" "iseasesE an"iii' #$!oni# $ealt$ issues !elate" to e*osu!e to !esi"ues ofag!o#$emi#als'

5n t!o*i#al an" subt!o*i#al !egions t$e!e is a #lose lin beteen t$e*!esen#e of e#ess ate! ="ue to la# of a"euate "!ainage> an" t$et!ansmission of ate! !elate" (e#to!6bo!ne "iseases' Mala!ia, s#$istosomiasis=bil$a!-iasis> an" lym*$ati# la!iasis a!e im*o!tant ate! !elate" (e#to!6bo!ne "iseases' ;es*ite #ont!ol *!og!ammes, $ealt$ se!(i#es an" a(ailablet!eatments, t$ese "iseases to"ay !e*!esent a g!oing $ealt$ *!oblem'

8ate! !elate" (e#to!6bo!ne "iseases a!e #ause" by ba#te!ia, (i!usesan" *a!asites =*!oto-oa an" $elmint$s> t!ansmitte" by ate! !elate" "iseaset!ansmitting agents, also #alle" (e#to!s o! inte!me"iate $osts' A (e#to! is ananimal, often an inse#t, t$at t!ansmits an infe#tion f!om one *e!son toanot$e! *e!son o! f!om infe#te" animals to $umans =+ai!n#!oss an".ea#$em, 173>' Most infe#tions #an only be t!ansmitte" by a *a!ti#ula!,"isease6s*e#i# (e#to!, e'g', mala!ia byAnophelesmosuitoes' Aninte!me"iate $ost $as a simila! !ole to a (e#to!' Hoe(e!, su#$ an o!ganism"oes not a#ti(ely t!ansmit a *at$ogen, lie f!es$ate! snails in t$e #ase ofs#$istosomiasis' Ge#to!s an" inte!me"iate $osts !e*!esent #!iti#al elements


9/22

in (a!ious "isease t!ansmission #y#les of *a!asiti# ate! !elate" "iseases' 5ngene!al, t$ey li(e in o! nea! auati# en(i!onments'

;i!e#t *at$ogen t!ansfe! an" t$e t!ansmission by (e#to!s an"inte!me"iate $osts !eui!e s*e#i# en(i!onmental an" so#io6e#onomi#

#on"itions' T$e #on"itions a!e "ene" byK

i' uality an" uantity of ate!Eii' ty*e an" f!euen#y of $uman6ate! #onta#tsEiii' numbe! an" "ist!ibution of (e#to! o! inte!me"iate $ost b!ee"ingsitesE an"i(' e*osu!e of $umans to (e#to! an" inte!me"iate $ost *o*ulations'

+onseuently, theabo(e6mentione" "iseases #an also be asso#iate"eit$e! "i!e#tly o! in"i!e#tly it$ t$e "esign an" management of t!eatmentan" "is*osal *lants fo! t$e !e6use, t!eatment o! "is*osal of "!ainage ate!'

T$e ey #!ite!ia fo! su#$ a $ealt$ !is a!eK

i' int!o"u#tion of tem*o!a!y o! *e!manent o*en ate! su!fa#es bo"ies,e'g', #onst!u#te" etlan", stabili-ation *on"s, o! e(a*o!ation *on"sE

ii' suitability of su#$ ate! fo! (e#to! b!ee"ingE

iii' a##essibility fo! t$e lo#al *o*ulationE

i(' lo#ation in !elation to $uman settlements an" t!ans*o!t lins =e'g',!oa"s>E an"

(' *ollution by o!gani# o! ino!gani# substan#es'

Misuse an" la# of maintenan#e a!e t$e to main !easons $y"!ainage st!u#tu!es =!oa" "!ainage "it#$es, #ul(e!ts, "am site "!ainage o!"!ainage #anals in i!!igation s#$emes, an" also "!ainage ate! t!eatmentan" "is*osal fa#ilities> a!e often asso#iate" it$ en(i!onmental $ealt$*!oblems' .a!me!s, asso#iations o! national agen#ies gene!ally #on"u#t!egula! maintenan#e on i!!igation #anals' 8ate! uality an" %o (elo#ity a!e!elati(ely $ig$' Hoe(e!, in "!ainage fa#ilities t$e o**osite #on"itions a!ef!euent' ilting, un#ont!olle" auati# ee" g!ot$, slo ate! %o o!

stagnant *ools asso#iate" it$ t$e !esulting etlan"s o&e! i"eal b!ee"ing#on"itions fo! mosuitoes an" auati# snails' .a!me!s seem to #on#ent!ateon i!!igation ate! management !at$e! t$an on "!ainage management'

Mo!eo(e!, t$e!e is often a la# of a"euate "omesti# ate! su**liesan" sanitation fa#ilities' T$us, "!ainage #anals o! "!ainage ate! t!eatmentan" "is*osal fa#ilities a!e often misuse" fo! as$ing, "!ining an"un#ont!olle" "is*osal of $uman e#!eta o! ot$e! aste by t$e *oo!est an",


10/22

t$us, most (ulne!able so#ial g!ou*s' 5n t$is ay, "!ainage ate! #ont!ibutesto "isease t!ansmission'

8ate! !elate" "iseases an" t$ei! (e#to!s

)ncidence of diseases * cases and ortalit+Alt$oug$ t$e e!a"i#ation of "iseases su#$ as mala!ia $as long been an

ob?e#ti(e, t$e *!oblem is fa! f!om being sol(e"' A##o!"ing to t$e most !e#ent

info!mation =8HO, 177F> t$e mala!ia situation is se!ious an" "ete!io!ating'

Qlobal mala!ia mo!tality is estimate" at 1':62'F million an" global mala!ia

#ases at 3006:00 million' Mala!ia is one of t$e most se!ious $ealt$ *!oblems

fa#ing Af!i#an #ount!ies an" a ma?o! limitation on t$ei! so#io6e#onomi#

*!og!ess' +$il"!en un"e! t$e age of (e an" *!egnant omen a!e most at

!is' 8HO =177F> !e*o!ts t$at 70 *e!#ent of t$e global bu!"en of t$is "isease

#an be att!ibute" to en(i!onmental fa#to!s, in#lu"ing lan" an" ate!

management'

#$istosomiasis is almost as i"es*!ea" as mala!ia but !a!ely #auses

imme"iate "eat$' An estimate" 200 million *eo*le a!e infe#te" an"

t!ansmission o##u!s in about F4 #ount!ies' T$e infe#tion is *!ima!ily #ommon

in #$il"!en $o *lay in ate! in$abite" by t$e snail inte!me"iate $ost' 8ate!

"e(elo*ment *!o?e#ts, es*e#ially t$ose asso#iate" it$ t$e i!!igation of la!ge

a!eas, $a(e often been asso#iate" it$ an in#!ease" in#i"en#e of

s#$istosomiasis' 5ntestinal s#$istosomiasis as unnon o! inf!euent in t$e

Nile, enegal an" Golta "eltas befo!e t$e #onst!u#tion of t$e Asan, ;iamaan" Alosombo "ams'

8o!l"i"e *a!asiti# an" infe#tious #ommuni#able "iseases =in#lu"ing

all ate! !elate" "iseases> #ause" 32U of all "eat$s in 1773, !esulting in t$e

loss of 1': million li(esE 77U of !e*o!te" #ases o##u!!e" in "e(elo*ing

#ount!ies' 5n t$ese #ount!ies, *a!asiti# an" infe#tious #ommuni#able "iseases

#ause 41':U of all "eat$s =8HO, 177:>'

,ector*borne diseases- transission b+ insects

5nse#t (e#to!s !e*!esent t$e la!gest g!ou* of "isease t!ansmittingagents' 5n most #ases an" fo! t$e most i"es*!ea" "iseases, mosuitoes a!e

t$e main (e#to!s' Among a i"e !ange of (e#to!6bo!ne "iseases, to

"iseases, namely, mala!ia an" lym*$ati# la!iasis stan" out as se!ious $ealt$

$a-a!"s in t$e #ontet of *oo! "!ainage'

Malaria


11/22

Mala!ia is #ause" by a *!oto-oan *a!asite of t$e

genus Plasmodium.Mala!ia is a #om*le "isease #ausing fe(e!, anaemia an"

an enla!gement of t$e s*leen' T$is #auses a""itional #e!eb!al #om*li#ations,

es*e#ially fo! #$il"!en' +o!!es*on"ingly, #$il" mo!tality !ates fo! P.

falciparum, one of t$e fou! ty*es of mala!ia a&e#ting $umans, a!e (e!y $ig$

it$ a**!oimately one million #$il"!en belo t$e age of (e "ying in 1773

=8HO, 177:E 8HO, 177>'

Mala!ia is t!ansmitte" by t$e bite of a mosuito of t$e

genusAnopheles.T$e t!ansmission #y#le is only beteen man an"

mosuitoes' Man a#ts as t$e inte!me"iate $ost o! !ese!(oi! an" t$e

mosuitoes as t$e (e#to!'

to un"e!go #om*le "e(elo*ment an" multi*li#ation *!o#esses bot$ in man

an" mosuito befo!e t$ey #an be fu!t$e! t!ansmitte"' Only t$e female

mosuitoes a!e of im*o!tan#e fo! t!ansmission, as t$ey nee" a bloo" mealfo! o(i*osition'

Mala!ia #o(e!s not only all "e(elo*ing #ount!ies, but is *!esent on

almost t$e enti!e lan" su!fa#e beteen t$e latitu"es 40VN an" 0V'

Hoe(e!, t$e "ist!ibution is not unifo!m an" "e*en"s mainly on #limate,

altitu"e, *o*ulation "ensity an" t$e s*e#i# en(i!onmental !eui!ements of

t$e mosuitoes s*e#ies'

Hig$ly en"emi# a!eas a!e sub6a$a!an Af!i#a, +ent!al Ame!i#a an" t$e

no!t$e!n *a!t of out$ Ame!i#a, t$e 5n"ian sub#ontinent an" out$east Asia'

5n t$e last to "e#a"es, a g!oing numbe! of mala!ia #ases $a(e been

obse!(e" =8HO, 177>' Hoe(e!, t$is #annot only be e*laine" by t$e

in#!easing *o*ulation' To a la!ge etent, t$is is also "ue to t$e in#!easing

numbe! of 8R;'


12/22

.u!t$e!mo!e, mala!ia t!ansmission is not only !elate" to 8R;'

Alt$oug$ la!iasis is mo!e of a se!ious u!ban $ealt$ *!oblem, it #an

#ause signi#ant $ealt$ $a-a!" in !u!al settlements an" fa!ming #ommunities

$e!e *oo! su!fa#e "!ainage, la# of sanitation fa#ilities an" en(i!onmental

*ollution t$!oug$ un#ont!olle" aste an" e#!eta "is*osal a!e *!e(alent' T$e

*!in#i*al (e#to!,Culex quinquefasciatus (fatigans),b!ee"s in *ollute" ate! in

"it#$es, "!ains, tans, ba!!els, tins an" any in" of ate! a##umulation

#ontaine!'


13/22

Mosquito bionomics

T$e!e a!e mo!e t$an 3 000 non mosuito s*e#ies' Hoe(e!, of t$e

1:0 s*e#ies t$at a!e *otential (e#to!s, only 30 a!e #onsi"e!e" "ange!ous'

T$e t$!ee gene!aAnopheles, Aedesan" Culex,f!om t$!ee sub6families, a!e

"isease !ele(ant'

T$e e*i"emiology an" t$e life #y#le stages "emonst!ate t$e

im*o!tan#e of #limati# fa#to!s an" t$at ate! is t$e essential en(i!onmental

#om*onent fo! mosuitoes' T$e immatu!e stages su#$ as eggs, la!(ae an"

*u*ae !eui!e an auati# en(i!onment, $e!eas a"ult mosuitoes li(e in

te!!est!ial e#osystems' T$e uality an" uantity of ate!, $et$e! it is

!unning o! stan"ing, s$allo o! "ee*, #lean o! *ollute", seet o! b!a#is$,

s$a"e" o! sunlit, *e!manent o! seasonal, an" nally t$e #limate ill

"ete!mine $i#$ *a!ti#ula! s*e#ies #an b!ee"' A summa!y of t$e *$ysi#alan" biologi#al fa#to!s is gi(en belo =8HO, 172>'


14/22

"ynami#s $i#$ maes #ont!ol e&o!ts "i#ult' A #om*!e$ensi(e

#lassi#ation by s*e#ies, #ount!y an" $abitat, in#lu"ing *otential

en(i!onmental management measu!es, is *!esente" in t$e Manual on

)n(i!onmental Management fo! Mosuito +ont!ol =8HO, 172>'

Natu!al biologi#al #ont!ol of mosuitoes #an be a##om*lis$e" it$

la!(i(o!ous s$' O(e! 2:0 "i&e!ent s*e#ies of su#$ s$ a!e non to

#onsume mosuito la!(ae' T$e most #ommon mosuito s$ is Gambusia

anis$i#$ is foun" in about 0 #ount!ies =Qe!be!i#$ an" Lai!", 17:>'

Mosuito s$ #an be *!o*agate" #omme!#ially an" int!o"u#e" into "!ainage

ate!' T$e s$ a!e most e&e#ti(e "u!ing t$e a!me! mont$s of t$e yea!'

!ater*based diseases- transission b+ aquatic and sei*

aquatic snails

Schistosomiasis

T$e!e a!e t$!ee ma?o! ty*es of s#$istosomiasis t$at a&e#t manK .

haematobium, . mansonian" :'!aponicum.T$e "isease is #ause" by

female an" male t!emato"e o!ms in$abiting t$e bloo" (essels of t$e

u!ina!y bla""e! (. haematobium, . !aponicum)o! t$e *o!tal an" mesente!i#

(eins (. mansoni).Ty*i#al (isible sym*toms of s#$istosomiasis infe#tion a!e

bloo" in t$e u!ine in t$e #ase of . haematobium,an" inte!mittent "ia!!$oea

an" fae#es #ontaining bloo" in t$e #ase of . mansoni=Jo!"an an" 8ebbe,

172>' Alt$oug$ e&e#ti(e #$emot$e!a*y is a(ailable, t$e #osts *e! t!eatment

an" *e! #a*ut mae it too e*ensi(e fo! many "e(elo*ing #ount!ies'

T$e t!ansmission of all t$!ee s*e#ies is base" on a #om*le fou!6*$ase

#y#le $i#$ in#lu"es t$e *!esen#e of f!es$ate! snails =.igu!e 7>' )ggs

e*elle" in t$e u!ine o! fae#es of an infe#te" *e!son may !ea#$ ate!, $e!e

t$ey $at#$ !a*i"ly into mi!a#i"ia, a f!ee6simming b!ief la!(al stage'

;e*en"ing on t$e s*e#ies, t$e mi!a#i"ia $a(e to n" a s*e#i# auati# o!

semi6auati# f!es$ate! snail as inte!me"iate $ost it$in 24 $ou!s'

. haematobium, . mansonian" . !aponicum!eui!e snails of t$egene!a "ulinus,

"iomphalariaan" #ncomelania, !es*e#ti(ely' #ncomelaniaa!e semi6auati#

snails t$at li(e *a!t of t$e time outsi"e ate! in moist soil o! mu"' 5n t$e

snails, t$e *a!asites "e(elo* it$in 4 to ees into #e!#a!iae, a se#on"

f!ee6simming la!(al stage' 5t is at t$is stage t$at t$ey a!e infe#tious fo!

man' nails s$e" nume!ous #e!#a!iae into t$e ate!' T$ese $a(e to n"


15/22

$uman beings in #onta#t it$ ate! in o!"e! to *enet!ate t$ei! sin' Ha(ing

*enet!ate" t$e sin of t$e $ost, t$e *a!asites n" t$ei! ay t$!oug$ t$e

(eins, $ea!t an" lungs to t$e nal o!gan, t$e!e !e#ommen#ing t$e #y#le it$

egg *!o"u#tion =Jo!"an an" 8ebbe, 172>'

Bionomics o snail intermediate hosts

Alt$oug$ in"i(i"ual snail s*e#ies !eui!e a s*e#i# *$ysi#al

en(i!onment, t$e (a!iety of auati# $abitats is almost innite' Ma!s$es an"

sam*s, *e!manent o! tem*o!a!y *on"s an" *ools, natu!al o! man6ma"e

f!es$ate! laes o! !ese!(oi!s, seasonal o! *e!manent o! slo %oing !i(e!

st!eams, i!!igation o! "!ainage #anals, !i#e el"s an" all ot$e! ty*es of

stan"ing, slo %oing o! im*oun"e" ate! a!e *otential snail b!ee"ing sites'

Qene!ally, t$e ate! nee"s to be s$allo, #lean o! b!a#is$, it$ little

tu!bi"ity' T$e "u!ation of t$e life #y#le "e*en"s on ate! tem*e!atu!es' T$ei"eal ate! tem*e!atu!e !anges f!om $%& Cto 2 V+'

nail inte!me"iate $osts of bot$ . haematobiuman" . mansonis$o

g!eat tole!an#e !ega!"ing *H (alues =:'367>, mean ate! tem*e!atu!es =1V6

30V+> an" salinity' nails a!e foun" in s$a"e" ate! bo"ies but a!e also

non to be a#ti(e $en e*ose" to "i!e#t sunlig$t' T$e s$e""ing of

#e!#a!iae #o!!elates it$ "ay6time an" t$us t$e intensity of sunlig$t'

.u!t$e!mo!e, snails $a(e a !ema!able #a*ability to su!(i(e long *e!io"s =:6

mont$s> in moist san" o! mu" =aesti(ation>' T$ei! main sou!#e of foo" is

o!gani# matte! o!iginating f!om "e#aying subme!ge" o! eme!ge" (egetation,"i&e!ent s*e#ies of algae, ba#te!ia an" fungi'

Hoe(e!, bot$ of t$ese auati# snail s*e#ies a!e sensiti(e to ate!

(elo#ity an" ate! table %u#tuations' Tole!able a(e!age #u!!ent s*ee" !anges

beteen 0'060'3 ms =Jobin an" 5**en, 174E Jobin et al.,174>' 5n natu!al

!i(e!s, snails a!e gene!ally "islo"ge" "ue to tu!bulen#e an" %eeting s$ea!

st!esses along t$e t!ansition -one beteen t$e embanment (egetation an"

t$e !i(e! be" se"iments, $i#$ a!e t$ei! a#tual $abitat -one =.!its#$, 1773>'

!ater*borne excreta related infections

Most of t$e auati# (e#to! o! inte!me"iate $ost $abitats #o!!es*on" tosites $e!e $umans a##ess ate! fo! as$ing, bat$ing, simming =mainly#$il"!en> o! s$ing'


16/22

+ai!n#!oss an" .ea#$em =173> *!o*ose" a #lassi#ation of ate!6bo!ne "iseases in o!"e! to mo!e fully un"e!stan" t$e e&e#ts of e#!eta"is*osalK

i' .ae#al6o!al "iseases =non6ba#te!ial>K 5nfe#tions t!ansmitte" f!om

*e!son to *e!son "ue to "omesti# #ontamination an" la# of *e!sonal$ygiene' )am*lesK $e*atitis A, gia!"iasis'

ii' .ae#al6o!al =ba#te!ial>K


17/22

su#$ sites t$at e#!eta "is*osal, animal fee"ing an" $uman ate! #onta#tsmig$t o##u! in a #on#ent!ate" an" un#ont!olle" fo!m, so lea"ing to t$ene#essa!y *at$ogen6mananimal #onta#ts'

%ealth risks and cheical pollution

Healt$ !iss !elate" to ate! uality, *!ima!ily "ue to ag!o#$emi#als,!e*!esent a g!oing *!oblem' T$is is mainly "ue to t$e intensie" *!o"u#tionan" t$e e*ansion of i!!igate" ag!i#ultu!e, often in asso#iation it$ foo"*!o#essing in"ust!ies =.AO, 1773E Hes*an$ol, 177>' 5n t$is #ontet, bot$subsu!fa#e an" o*en "!ains #an $a(e an im*a#t on $uman $ealt$ on fou!le(elsK

i' ;!ainage ate! !e6use =see +$a*te! 3>' Lea#$ing o! su!fa#e !uno&f!om el"s t!eate" it$ *esti#i"es, e'g', $e!bi#i"es, fungi#i"es, inse#ti#i"eso! mollus#i#i"es =+ai!n#!oss an" .ea#$em, 173>, !e*!esents a non6*oint

sou!#e of toi# o!gani# substan#es' 5f !e6use" as i!!igation ate!, toi#substan#es #an be ingeste" by in"i(i"uals "i!e#tly o! in"i!e#tly in t$e #ase of"!ainage ate! being mie" it$ "!ining ate! !esou!#es' Anot$e! sou!#e of"i!e#t ate! #ontamination it$ ag!o#$emi#als is t$e as$ing of s*!ayingeui*ment in o*en "!ains o! i!!igation #anals o! t$e s*!aying of i!!igation#anals an" !ese!(oi!s against auati# ee"s =Hes*an$ol, 177>' Lea#$ingalso in#lu"es t$e t!ans*o!t of ino!gani# substan#es lie salts, nit!ate,*$os*$o!us o! $ea(y metals' u#$ substan#es #an lea" to $ealt$ *!oblems if#onsume" in $ig$ enoug$ "oses =.AO, 1773>' Hoe(e!, salt ill be less of a$ealt$ *!oblem as a salty taste ill *!o$ibit in"i(i"uals f!om "!ining toomu#$ salt *ollute" ate!' T!a#e elements a!e mo!e of a #on#e!n in t$e #ase

of subsu!fa#e "!ainage ate!'

ii' ;!ainage ate! t!eatment an" "is*osal' As outline" in +$a*te!s :an" , bot$ lea" to an a##umulation, a t!ansfe! o! a t!ansition of *ollutants'5n a""ition, t!eatment fa#ilities su#$ as #onst!u#te" etlan"s o! stabili-ation*on"s int!o"u#e ne an" *e!manent o*en ate! su!fa#es, an" auati# ee"g!ot$' He!e, t$e uestion is $et$e! t$is ill #$ange t$e $uman6ate!#onta#t *atte!ns an" #!eate ne (e#to! b!ee"ing sites' .u!t$e!mo!e, t$euality of ina"euately t!eate" "!ainage ate! mig$t also !e*!esent a*otential $ealt$ !is'

iii' T$e a**li#ation of inse#ti#i"es o! mollus#i#i"es "u!ing #$emi#al(e#to! #ont!ol #am*aigns' T$is #an lea" to s$o!t6te!m $ig$ #on#ent!ations oftoi# #$emi#als in i!!igation o! "!ainage #anals' n*!ote#te" o!e!s a!ee*ose" to $ealt$ !iss an" lo#al *o*ulations mig$t #onsume *ollute" ate!it$out being aa!e of t$e !iss' 5n"i!e#t #ontamination mig$t o##u! t$!oug$t$e ingestion of s$'


18/22

i(' n#ont!olle" "is*osal of in"ust!ial liui" aste in "!ainage #anals o!t!eatment an" "is*osal systems' ;ue to t$e la# of en(i!onmental!egulations an" *!o*e! t!eatment *lants, es*e#ially in u!ban a!eas, "!ainsoften se!(e as liui" aste "is*osal sites fo! lo#al in"ust!ies, t$us!e*!esenting "ange!ous *oint sou!#es of toi# substan#es'

Alt$oug$ $ealt$ !iss a!ising f!om #$emi#al *ollution a!e a##e*te" as ama?o! en(i!onmental #on#e!n, "ata on me"i#al im*li#ations a!e "i#ult toobtain an" often una(ailable fo! "e(elo*ing #ount!ies' ;ue to t$e la# ofen(i!onmental *!ote#tion an" !egulation stan"a!"s as ell as t$e la# ofen(i!onmental monito!ing "ata, go(e!nmental se!(i#es often negle#t t$eissue of *ollution #ont!ol'

MM./ starts waterwa+ cleanup drive

Ma!#$ 2, 201 By Mie .!ial"eof T$e


19/22

t$em *lasti# foo" #ontaine!s, aluminum #ans, *olysty!ene *!o"u#ts, *lasti##u*s, s#!a*s of oo" an" a "is#a!"e" matt!ess'

20 baran#a+s ordered- Clean canals1 drains

Ma!#$ 27, 201: By .lo! S' to tu!n t$e $eel' T$e ale of t$e tu!ning $eel #an t$en

*oe! ot$e! ma#$ines to "o o!' T$is in" of *oe! is #alle" $y"!o*oe!'

he histor+ of water wheels

Histo!ians a!e not su!e $en ate! $eels e!e !st use", but it isnon t$at t$ey e!e in use in an#ient Q!ee#e se(e!al #entu!ies B+ =Befo!e+$!ist>' T$ey e!e also i"ely use" in t$e Roman )m*i!e, in#lu"ing fo! t$e*um*ing of ate! f!om mines' 5t is also t$oug$t t$at ate! $eels e!e
http://www.philstar.com:8080/author/Flor%20Z.%20Perolina/http://www.philstar.com:8080/author/Flor%20Z.%20Perolina/


20/22

"e(elo*e" se*a!ately in an#ient +$ina, $e!e t$ey a!e non f!om t$e !st#entu!y A;'

8ate! $eels e!e use" t$!oug$out )u!o*e "u!ing t$e Mi""le Ages,$e!e t$ey e!e t$e main sou!#e of *oe! fo! "!i(ing la!ge ma#$ines' 8ate!

$eels "!o(e t$e mills t$at g!oun" g!ain into %ou!, an" e!e also use" inmetal foun"!ies an" to "!i(e ai! bloe!s fo! t$e smelting of i!on, fo! t$e#!us$ing of !o#, an" fo! t$e $amme!ing of %a lea(es to mae *a*e!'

T$e use of ate! $eels as limite" to sites $e!e t$e!e e!e suitableate! su**lies an" slo*es' T$is as not alays $e!e t$e *oe! asnee"e", su#$ as in t$e *o*ulation #ent!es o! t$e mines an" ua!!ies' T$e useof ate! $eels to *oe! la!ge ma#$ines as !e*la#e" "u!ing t$e 5n"ust!ialRe(olution by t$e ne te#$nology of steam *oe!, $i#$ "i" not $a(e t$esame limitations'

T$e ate! $eel *!in#i*le $as been !e(i(e" in mo!e !e#ent times asate!6*oe!e" tu!bines t$at use t$e ene!gy of ate! %oing "on a slo*e togene!ate $y"!oele#t!i#ity'

8ate! $eels #onsist of la!ge oo"en o! metal $eels $i#$ $a(e*a""les o! bu#ets a!!ange" a!oun" t$e outsi"e !im' T$e fo!#e o! t$e eig$tof t$e ate! on t$e *a""les o! bu#ets tu!ns t$e $eel'

T$e ale of t$e $eel also tu!ns, an" t$is is use" to "!i(e t$e ma#$ineby ay of belts o! gea!s' T$e %oing #$annel of ate! is #alle" a Wmill !a#e/'T$e !a#e t$at b!ings t$e ate! f!om t$e Wmill *on"/ to t$e $eel is #alle" t$e

W$ea" !a#e/ an" t$e #$annel t$at #a!!ies t$e ate! aay is t$e Wtail !a#e/'

Bot$ $o!i-ontal an" (e!ti#al ate! $eels $a(e been use", it$ t$e(e!ti#al ty*e mu#$ mo!e #ommon an" e#ient' Of t$ese, to #ommon"esigns a!e t$e Wun"e!s$ot ate! $eel/ an" t$e Wo(e!s$ot ate! $eel/'

3ndershot water wheels

An un"e!s$ot $eel is mounte" abo(e t$e mill !a#e it$ t$e bottom oft$e $eel in t$e ate!' T$e %oing ate! st!ies t$e *a""les o! bla"es an"tu!ns t$e $eel' T$e faste! t$e ate! is %oing t$e faste! t$e $eel ill tu!n'

4vershot water wheels


21/22

5n an o(e!s$ot ate! $eel t$e mill !a#e b!ings t$e ate! to t$e to* oft$e $eel, $e!e it st!ies t$e *a""les o! bu#ets an" tu!ns t$e $eel' T$isis mo!e e#ient be#ause as ell as t$e fo!#e of t$e %oing ate!, t$e eig$tof t$e falling ate! also $el*s to tu!n t$e $eel' T$is "esign sometimes $a"bu#ets mounte" only on one !im of t$e $eel, so t$at t$ese lle" it$

ate!, maing t$at si"e of t$e $eel $ea(ie!'

Be#ause it uses t$e *otential ene!gy of t$e falling ate!, an o(e!s$otate! $eel ill still o! e(en $en t$e %o of ate! is not (e!y fast' T$ela!ge! t$e "iamete! of t$e $eel, t$e g!eate! Wle(e!age/ an" so t$e g!eate!tu!ning e&e#t on t$e ale t$at "!i(es t$e ma#$ine'

T$e Bea#onsel" Qol" an" He!itage Museum =Q!ubb $aft> in Tasmania$as a o!ing o(e!s$ot ate! $eel t$at "!i(es a $uge stam*ing6batte!yma#$ine t$at as use" to #!us$ t$e ua!t- o!e #ontaining gol"' T$e ma#$ineas built in 12 an" still o!sX

Anot$e! ne Aust!alian eam*le is t$e B!i"geate! Mill in out$Aust!alia built by Jo$n ;unn in 1:7 as a %ou! mill, an" still *!ese!(e"' T$isate! $eel is an eam*le of a Wba#s$ot $eel/, a (e!sion of t$e o(e!s$otate! $eel $e!e t$e ate! f!om t$e !a#e is int!o"u#e" ?ust be$in" t$e to*of t$e $eel'

he !ater !heel

G' Ryan Y 200: 2007

8ate! $as been use" to *oe! in"ust!y fo! $un"!e"s yea!s' T$eeam*le belo s$os a ate! $eel being "!i(en !oun" by a !i(e! st!eam'As t$e ate! $eel tu!ns, a s$aft !unning t$!oug$ its #ent!e oul" be use" to*oe! ma#$ines t$!oug$ a !ange of *ulleys' T$is as t$e main fo!m of *oe!"u!ing t$e ea!ly yea!s of t$e 5n"ust!ial Re(olution'

8ate! $eels e!e t$e fo!e6!unne! of ou! mo"e!n "ay ate! "!i(enele#t!i#al tu!bines'

To in#!ease t$e *oe! *!o(i"e" by ate! a "am is a""e"' T$is is seen

in t$e "iag!am belo' T$e "am allos a W$ea"/ of ate! to buil" u*' T$eate! #an be !elease $en *oe! is nee"e" to "!i(e ma#$ines insi"e t$ebuil"ingfa#to!y' T$is system *!o(i"es mo!e *oe! be#auseK

A *oe!ful W$ea"/ of ate! is built u* be$in" t$e "am' 8$en t$e ate!is !elease", it is "i!e#te" to t$e to* of t$e ate! $eel' T$e $eel s*insfaste! be#ause g!a(ity ai"s t$e falling ate!, *us$ing t$e $eel !oun" at a$ig$e! s*ee"'


22/22

Anot$e! a"(antage of t$is ty*e of system is t$at e(en "u!ing "!y*e!io"s, ate! #an be alloe" to sloly buil" u* be$in" t$e "am' 5t #an t$enbe use" to *oe! ma#$ines' 5n "!y *e!io"s a !i(e! o! st!eam may be s$alloan" %o sloly' Hoe(e!, t$e "am allos ate! to be sto!e" until t$e!e isenoug$ to "!i(e t$e ma#$ines insi"e t$e buil"ing'

chapter 2 unfinished rrl

Documents