OBSERVATION

© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION & KEITH MORRISON

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER

• Structured observation• The need to practise structured observation• Analyzing data from structured observations• Critical incidents• Naturalistic and participant observation• Data analysis for less structured observations• Natural and artificial settings for observation• The use of technology in recording observations• Timing and causality with observational data• Ethical considerations• Some cautionary comments

OBSERVATIONS ARE . . .

• Looking (often systematically)• Noting systematically people, events,

behaviours, settings, artifacts, routines etc.• Concerned with live data and situations• Selective and theory-driven (there are no

neutral observations)• On a continuum from highly structured to

semi-structured to unstructured

ROLE OF OBSERVER

• Complete participant• Participant as observer• Observer as participant• Complete observer

Complete participation to complete detachment

CONTINUA OF OBSERVATION

Prespecified/pre-ordinate ResponsiveQuantitative QualitativeTime bound Open-endedShort-term Long-termStructured/systematic Unstructured/ad hocParticipant observation Non-participant observationHighly focused/early focused Unfocused/late focusedDescriptive ExplanatoryOvert CovertLaboratory/contrived settings Natural settingsDirect observation Indirect observationObserving others Observing self and others

OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . . • The focus of the observation(s)• Why they are observing• The research questions that the observational

data will address• What to include and exclude• How to record the observations• Where to observe• What to observe • Whom to observe• How many people, events, settings to observe

OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . . • How systematic, structured, descriptive to be• The ‘unit’ of observation (e.g. a teacher, a

student; a pair, a small group, a class)• What resources are necessary• Problems that might be encountered• Additional information that may be needed to

complement the observational record• The processing and analysis of data

OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . . • How the observation may be affected by the

sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance, age, language, personality, temperament, attitude, interpersonal behaviour, familiarity with the situation, involvement and concern of the observer

• Whether the observer will stand or sit, or move around a setting

• Where to stand or sit

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

• Systematic • Enables the researcher to generate numerical

data from the observations• Non-participant observer• Data entered onto a structured observation

schedule

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

• Observation categories are discrete: no overlap

• Timed• The researcher will need to practise

completing the schedule consistently and at speed

• The researcher will need to decide what entry/code/symbol is to be made in the appropriate category

Student to Student / / / /                    

Student to Students         / /                

Student to Teacher                       / / /

Students to Teacher             / / / / /      

Teacher to Student                            

Teacher to Students                            

Student to Self                            

                             

Task in hand                  

Previous task                  

Future task                            

Non-task                    

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

EVENT SAMPLING

(Each occurrence)

Boss shouts at employee / / / / /

Employee shouts at boss / / /

Employee’s colleague shouts at boss / /

Boss shouts at employee’s colleague / /

TWO DIFFERENT STORIES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Boss shouts at employee / / / / /

Employee shouts at boss / / /

Employee’s friend shouts at boss / /

Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Boss shouts at employee / / / / /

Employee shouts at boss / / /

Employee’s friend shouts at boss / /

Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /

INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING(On the instant of time)

INTERVAL RECORDING(What has happened in the previous

time period)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Boss smiles at employee / / / /

Employee smiles at boss / / / /

Boss smiles at employee’s friend / / / /

Employee’s friend smiles at boss / / / /

1 2 3 4 5

Warm _ _ _ _ _ Aloof

Stimulating _ _ _ _ _ Dull

Businesslike _ _ _ _ _ Slipshod

RATING SCALES

CRITICAL INCIDENTS

• Entering data consistently and at speed• Catching all the data• Where to observe/stand/sit

THE NEED TO PRACTISE STRUCTURED OBSERVATION

• Frequencies• Patterns• Unusual data• Frequently occurring• Aggregated data• Quantitized and qualitized

ANALYZING DATA FROM STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS

• Naturalistic research often uses participant observation

• Observations are recorded in field notes and audio-visually

NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

FIELD NOTES (1)

Types:• Jottings; transcriptions; reports; pen

portraits;reconstructions of conversations; descriptions of physical settings; reports of events and behaviour; descriptions of researcher’s activities; ongoing notes; logs and diaries; notes on pre‑determined themes; chronologs; discussion data

FIELD NOTES (2)

Timing and focus:• Notes made in situ;• Expanded notes that are made as soon as

possible after the initial observations;• Journal notes to record issues, ideas,

difficulties etc. that arise during the fieldwork;

• A developing, tentative running record of ongoing analysis and interpretation.

FIELD NOTES (3)Description• Space: the physical setting;• Actors: the people in the situation;• Activities: the sets of related acts that are taking

place.• Objects: the artifacts and physical things that are

there;• Acts: the specific actions that participants are doing;• Events: the sets of activities that are taking place;• Time: the sequence of acts, activities and events;• Goals: what people are trying to achieve;• Feelings: what people feel and how they express

this.

FIELD NOTES (4)Reflection:• Reflections on the descriptions and analyses

that have been done;• Reflections on the methods used in the

observations and data collection and analysis;• Ethical issues, tensions, problems and

dilemmas;• The reactions of the observer to what has been

observed and recorded – attitude, emotion, analysis etc.;

• Points of clarification that have been and/or need to be made;

• Possible lines of further inquiry.

DATA ANALYSIS FROM FIELD NOTESQualitative data analysis:• Coding, classifying, categorizing• Nodes and connection• Summarizing• Narrative accounts • Constant comparison• Grounded theory• Theoretical saturation• Thematic analysis • Patterning• Quantitizing (e.g. frequencies)

USING TECHNOLOGY IN RECORDING OBSERVATIONS

Audio-visual recording• Problems of reactivity• Fixed or moving camera• Operator present with camera/camera; no

operator present• How many cameras?• Location of camera(s)• Close focus or panorama?

TIMING AND CAUSALITY WITH OBSERVATIONAL DATA

• When to observe effects of an intervention?• How many time points for observation?• How frequent are the observations?• The more accurately we wish to know the causal

sequences, the more frequently and closer together must be the observational data collection points.

• The more complex is the phenomenon under investigation, the more time points for observational data collection may be necessary in order to understand the causation.

• Ethnography may be more useful than numerical studies in identifying causality.

ETHICS

• Informed consent• Covert or overt• Disturbing the natural setting• Deception and pretence• Impression management• Confidentiality/anonymity/privacy/non-

traceability• Protection of individuals• Loyalties (and to whom)• Ignoring dubious acts (e.g. criminal acts)

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY• Selective attention of the observer • Reactivity • Attention deficit of observer• Validity of constructs• Selective data entry • Selective memory for write-ups of observations• Interpersonal matters and counter-transference• Expectancy effects • Decisions on how to record • Number of observers• The problem of inference

PLANNING OBSERVATIONS• When, where, how and what to observe• How much structure is necessary in the

observation (structured to unstructured)• The duration of the observation period• The timing of the observation period• The context of the observation • The opportunity to observe• Merging subjective and objective observation• The value of covert participant observation in

order to reduce reactivity

PLANNING OBSERVATIONS• Threats to reliability and validity• Operationalizing the observation so that what

counts as evidence is consistent, unambiguous and valid

• Appropriate kind of structured observation and recording

• Ethical issues• Whether deception is justified• Which role(s) to adopt on the continuum of

complete participant to complete observer