chapter 23 the evolution of populations. a common misconception many people think individuals...

Chapter 23Chapter 23

The Evolution of Populations

The Evolution of Populations

A Common MisconceptionA Common Misconception

Many people think individuals evolve.

This is not true. Populations evolve as a result of natural selection acting on each individual within a given population.

Those individuals better fit to survive are more likely to reproduce and pass on genes that will benefit future generations.

Many people think individuals evolve.

This is not true. Populations evolve as a result of natural selection acting on each individual within a given population.

Those individuals better fit to survive are more likely to reproduce and pass on genes that will benefit future generations.

MicroevolutionMicroevolution

Evolution on a small scale. The change in the genetic make up of a population from generation to generation.

Evolution on a small scale. The change in the genetic make up of a population from generation to generation.

Darwin’s “Problem”Darwin’s “Problem”

Darwin’s problem was that there were many limitations of science at the time.

He did not have a good explanation for how such heritable variations that were required for natural selection appeared in a population.

Nor did he have an explanation for how they were transmitted from organisms to their offspring.

Darwin’s problem was that there were many limitations of science at the time.

He did not have a good explanation for how such heritable variations that were required for natural selection appeared in a population.

Nor did he have an explanation for how they were transmitted from organisms to their offspring.

Recall the Blending Hypothesis:

Recall the Blending Hypothesis:

At the time, the blending hypothesis was what people used to explain why offspring look like both parents.

Darwin and others realized this was wrong because it would eliminate variation within a population.

Ironically, shortly after Darwin published Origin, Gregor Mendel published his paper on genetics.

At the time, the blending hypothesis was what people used to explain why offspring look like both parents.

Darwin and others realized this was wrong because it would eliminate variation within a population.

Ironically, shortly after Darwin published Origin, Gregor Mendel published his paper on genetics.

Mendel’s paper went unnoticed for nearly 50 years.

In the early 20th century, as scientists uncovered the work of Mendel, it became apparent that its implications and relatedness to Darwin’s idea were profound.

Mendel’s paper went unnoticed for nearly 50 years.

In the early 20th century, as scientists uncovered the work of Mendel, it became apparent that its implications and relatedness to Darwin’s idea were profound.

Population GeneticsPopulation Genetics

Scientists so began drawing parallels between Darwin and Mendel and melded them into what is known as population genetics--the study of how populations change over time.

Scientists so began drawing parallels between Darwin and Mendel and melded them into what is known as population genetics--the study of how populations change over time.

The Modern SynthesisThe Modern Synthesis

As more was learned about Darwin and Mendel, scientists developed the Modern Synthesis--a comprehensive theory of evolution that incorporates many fields of science.

As more was learned about Darwin and Mendel, scientists developed the Modern Synthesis--a comprehensive theory of evolution that incorporates many fields of science.

PopulationsPopulations

Populations are groups of individuals that can breed with one another and are localized in certain regions.

Some populations are isolated from others.

Still others can easily mix with other members of a population.

Populations are groups of individuals that can breed with one another and are localized in certain regions.

Some populations are isolated from others.

Still others can easily mix with other members of a population.

PopulationsPopulations

Within a population, all of the genes are called the gene pool and it consists of all alleles at a given locus.

If only one allele exists in a population, it is said to be fixed and all individuals are homozygous.

If more than one allele exists, then individuals are either homozygous or heterozygous.

Within a population, all of the genes are called the gene pool and it consists of all alleles at a given locus.

If only one allele exists in a population, it is said to be fixed and all individuals are homozygous.

If more than one allele exists, then individuals are either homozygous or heterozygous.

Allele FrequencyAllele Frequency

Consider a population of 500 with 2 alleles, CR and CW

CRCR gives Red CWCW gives White CRCW gives Pink

Consider a population of 500 with 2 alleles, CR and CW

CRCR gives Red CWCW gives White CRCW gives Pink

Allele FrequencyAllele Frequency

Our Population Breakdown:

320 red, CRCR

160 Pink, CRCW

20 White, CWCW

These numbers suggest a blending hypothesis

Why can’t we use blending?

Our Population Breakdown:

320 red, CRCR

160 Pink, CRCW

20 White, CWCW

These numbers suggest a blending hypothesis

Why can’t we use blending?

The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem


This theorem is a way to examine how allele frequencies change over time when only segregation and independent assortment are working on the alleles.

The properties of a non-evolving gene pool--in the absence of natural selection.

The theorem states that the frequencies of the alleles will remain constant in a population when it is not evolving.

This theorem is a way to examine how allele frequencies change over time when only segregation and independent assortment are working on the alleles.

The properties of a non-evolving gene pool--in the absence of natural selection.

The theorem states that the frequencies of the alleles will remain constant in a population when it is not evolving.



The theorem describes Mendelian inheritance in non-evolving populations.

It also helps us to understand long-term evolutionary change--that is, the preservation of genetic variation gives the opportunity for natural selection to occur.

The theorem describes Mendelian inheritance in non-evolving populations.

It also helps us to understand long-term evolutionary change--that is, the preservation of genetic variation gives the opportunity for natural selection to occur.

Hardy-Weinberg Frequency

Hardy-Weinberg Frequency

In our population, there are 1000 copies of genes (500 individuals, 2 copies).

800 of them are CR

200 of them are CW When we have 2 alleles, by convention we represent them as p and q.

p = CR = 800/1000 = 0.8 or 80% q = CW = 200/1000 = 0.2 or 20%

In our population, there are 1000 copies of genes (500 individuals, 2 copies).

800 of them are CR

200 of them are CW When we have 2 alleles, by convention we represent them as p and q.

p = CR = 800/1000 = 0.8 or 80% q = CW = 200/1000 = 0.2 or 20%



To determine the probabilities in our wild flower example:

The chance of CRCR is: p • p = p2 = 0.8 • 0.8 = 0.64 64%

The chance of CRCW is: p • q = 2pq = 0.8 • 0.2 = 0.32 32%

The chance of CWCW is: q • q = q2 = 0.2 • 0.2 = 0.04 4%

To determine the probabilities in our wild flower example:

The chance of CRCR is: p • p = p2 = 0.8 • 0.8 = 0.64 64%

The chance of CRCW is: p • q = 2pq = 0.8 • 0.2 = 0.32 32%

The chance of CWCW is: q • q = q2 = 0.2 • 0.2 = 0.04 4%

The Hardy-Weinberg Equation

The Hardy-Weinberg Equation

The Hardy-Weinberg Equation becomes: p2 + 2pq +q2 = 1

Again, with a non-evolving gene pool, the frequencies of alleles will remain constant if mating is random. You can think of it like a deck of cards, no matter how many times you shuffle them, the types of cards and their frequencies remain the same.

The Hardy-Weinberg Equation becomes: p2 + 2pq +q2 = 1

Again, with a non-evolving gene pool, the frequencies of alleles will remain constant if mating is random. You can think of it like a deck of cards, no matter how many times you shuffle them, the types of cards and their frequencies remain the same.

5 Reasons Hardy-Weinberg Doesn’t Hold

True:

5 Reasons Hardy-Weinberg Doesn’t Hold

True: Departure from these 5

conditions results in evolution.1. Extremely large population size.2. No gene flow.3. No mutations.4. Random mating.5. No natural selection.

Departure from these 5 conditions results in evolution.

1. Extremely large population size.2. No gene flow.3. No mutations.4. Random mating.5. No natural selection.

Mutation and Sexual Recombination


These provide variety within gene pools.

Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequences that give rise to new genes and new alleles. Sometimes they’re good, usually they are not.

Most mutations occur in somatic cells and are never passed on.

Only a small percentage of gametes ever get into the populations, so any mutation occurring in the gametes likely won’t get passed on.

These provide variety within gene pools.

Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequences that give rise to new genes and new alleles. Sometimes they’re good, usually they are not.

Most mutations occur in somatic cells and are never passed on.

Only a small percentage of gametes ever get into the populations, so any mutation occurring in the gametes likely won’t get passed on.



Mutation rates in general are low. The larger the organism the less likely a mutation will occur and vice-versa. For example: Plants and animals with long generation times are relatively large and have a much lower frequency of mutations than do microorganism and viruses.

Mutation rates in general are low. The larger the organism the less likely a mutation will occur and vice-versa. For example: Plants and animals with long generation times are relatively large and have a much lower frequency of mutations than do microorganism and viruses.



Sexual recombination is the best way to produce variation within a population on a generation to generation time scale.

There are 3 factors which cause the most evolutionary change by altering allele frequencies:1. Natural selection2. Genetic drift3. Gene flow

Sexual recombination is the best way to produce variation within a population on a generation to generation time scale.

There are 3 factors which cause the most evolutionary change by altering allele frequencies:1. Natural selection2. Genetic drift3. Gene flow

1. Natural Selection1. Natural Selection

As you know, when organisms are more fit to survive, they are more likely to pass on the traits that make them better suited for survival and this often changes the allele frequency within a population.

As you know, when organisms are more fit to survive, they are more likely to pass on the traits that make them better suited for survival and this often changes the allele frequency within a population.

2. Genetic Drift2. Genetic Drift Genetic drift is an unexpected fluctuation in allele frequency from one generation to the next. This is often due to a chance event where a large proportion of the population is wiped out.

Genetic drift is an unexpected fluctuation in allele frequency from one generation to the next. This is often due to a chance event where a large proportion of the population is wiped out.

2. Genetic Drift2. Genetic Drift

There are two situations which increase the likelihood of genetic drift that have a large impact on a population: A. The bottle neck effect B. The founder effect

There are two situations which increase the likelihood of genetic drift that have a large impact on a population: A. The bottle neck effect B. The founder effect

A. The Bottle Neck Effect

A. The Bottle Neck Effect

A sudden change in the environment which drastically changes a population can have a profound impact on the genetic makeup of the population.

It may change the population in such a way that the survivors no longer represent the original population.

The survivors are said to have gone through a “bottleneck.”

A sudden change in the environment which drastically changes a population can have a profound impact on the genetic makeup of the population.

It may change the population in such a way that the survivors no longer represent the original population.

The survivors are said to have gone through a “bottleneck.”

B. The Founder EffectB. The Founder Effect

When a few organisms become isolated from a large population and establish a new population whose gene pool is not reflective of the new population, we say the “founder effect” has occurred.

These founders pass through an isolation bottleneck and represent a gene pool with altered allele frequencies.

When a few organisms become isolated from a large population and establish a new population whose gene pool is not reflective of the new population, we say the “founder effect” has occurred.

These founders pass through an isolation bottleneck and represent a gene pool with altered allele frequencies.

3. Gene Flow3. Gene Flow

Gene flow occurs when populations gain or lose alleles as organisms come and go within a population. Gene flow tends to reduce differences between populations.

Gene flow occurs when populations gain or lose alleles as organisms come and go within a population. Gene flow tends to reduce differences between populations.

VariationVariation

Variations are heritable differences within a population and comprise the raw material for diversity and natural selection.

Only the genetic component of variation can have evolutionary consequences as a result of natural selection.

Variations are heritable differences within a population and comprise the raw material for diversity and natural selection.

Only the genetic component of variation can have evolutionary consequences as a result of natural selection.

VariationVariation

Variation within a population comes from either discrete characters or quantitative characters: Discrete-an either or basis determined from a single locus.

Quantitative-comes from 2 or more loci that determine the phenotype.

Variation within a population comes from either discrete characters or quantitative characters: Discrete-an either or basis determined from a single locus.

Quantitative-comes from 2 or more loci that determine the phenotype.

FitnessFitness

The adaptive advantage of an organism which allows it to make a genetic contribution to the gene pool of the next generation.

The adaptive advantage of an organism which allows it to make a genetic contribution to the gene pool of the next generation.

Modes of SelectionModes of Selection

Natural selection alters the frequency distribution of heritable traits in three ways:

1. Directional selection. 2. Disruptive selection. 3. Stabilizing selection.

Natural selection alters the frequency distribution of heritable traits in three ways:

1. Directional selection. 2. Disruptive selection. 3. Stabilizing selection.

Directional SelectionDirectional Selection

This is most common when a population’s environment changes or when members of a population migrate to a new habitat with different environmental conditions.

This is most common when a population’s environment changes or when members of a population migrate to a new habitat with different environmental conditions.

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Disruptive SelectionDisruptive Selection

This occurs when conditions favor individuals in both extremes over those of normal average phenotypes. It can be important in the early stages of speciation.

This occurs when conditions favor individuals in both extremes over those of normal average phenotypes. It can be important in the early stages of speciation.







Stabilizing SelectionStabilizing Selection

Acts against extreme phenotypes, it favors the intermediates. It reduces variation and maintains the status quo of a given phenotype.

Acts against extreme phenotypes, it favors the intermediates. It reduces variation and maintains the status quo of a given phenotype.




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Selection, In GeneralSelection, In General

Regardless of the mode of selection, selection works to favor certain heritable traits through differential success.

Disruptive and stabilizing selection tend to reduce variation, but there are methods nature uses to preserve it.

Regardless of the mode of selection, selection works to favor certain heritable traits through differential success.

Disruptive and stabilizing selection tend to reduce variation, but there are methods nature uses to preserve it.

Methods Nature Uses:Methods Nature Uses:

1. Diploidy 2. Balancing Selection

A. Heterozygous advantage B. Frequency dependent selection

3. Neutral Variation

1. Diploidy 2. Balancing Selection

A. Heterozygous advantage B. Frequency dependent selection

3. Neutral Variation

DiploidyDiploidy

Many eukaryotes are diploid and this hides a lot of variation from selection.

Recessiveness can be transferred from generation to generation even if they are harmful because they only cause harm when inherited from both parents when the zygote is formed.

Many eukaryotes are diploid and this hides a lot of variation from selection.

Recessiveness can be transferred from generation to generation even if they are harmful because they only cause harm when inherited from both parents when the zygote is formed.

Balancing SelectionBalancing Selection

Occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population. Heterozygous advantage--acts in a way that is favored by natural selection over either homozygous form.

Frequency dependent selection--the fitness of any one morph declines if it becomes too common in a population.

Occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population. Heterozygous advantage--acts in a way that is favored by natural selection over either homozygous form.

Frequency dependent selection--the fitness of any one morph declines if it becomes too common in a population.

Heterozygous AdvantageHeterozygous Advantage

Neutral VariationNeutral Variation

Some of the genetic variation has little or no effect on reproductive success. Much of the difference we see is found in untranslated parts of the genome.

Confers no advantage--are called pseudogenes.

Genetic drift can increase or decrease the frequency of pseudogenes. Difficult to measure--very debatable.

Some of the genetic variation has little or no effect on reproductive success. Much of the difference we see is found in untranslated parts of the genome.

Confers no advantage--are called pseudogenes.

Genetic drift can increase or decrease the frequency of pseudogenes. Difficult to measure--very debatable.

Sexual SelectionSexual Selection

Sexual selection is natural selection for mating success. It can result in sexual dimorphism--differences between the sexes in secondary characteristics.

There are two types of sexual selection: Intrasexual selection. Intersexual selection.

Males are usually the showier sex.

Sexual selection is natural selection for mating success. It can result in sexual dimorphism--differences between the sexes in secondary characteristics.

There are two types of sexual selection: Intrasexual selection. Intersexual selection.

Males are usually the showier sex.

Intrasexual SelectionIntrasexual Selection

In this, we have direct competition of one sex for mates of the opposite sex. A male often patrols a group of females and prevents other males from mating with her. He is often the psychological winner via a ritual that discourages competitors. This prevents harm to him and increases his own fitness.

In this, we have direct competition of one sex for mates of the opposite sex. A male often patrols a group of females and prevents other males from mating with her. He is often the psychological winner via a ritual that discourages competitors. This prevents harm to him and increases his own fitness.

Intersexual SelectionIntersexual Selection

Individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting mates from the other sex. In most cases, a female’s choice depends on the showiness of a male.

Example: Peacocks display sexual dimorphism and both inter- and intrasexual selection.

Individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting mates from the other sex. In most cases, a female’s choice depends on the showiness of a male.

Example: Peacocks display sexual dimorphism and both inter- and intrasexual selection.

An Interesting AsideAn Interesting Aside

Regarding showiness, the most intriguing thing is that it is often a hindrance to their survival. The benefits, however, seem to outweigh the costs. When a female chooses a showier male, she is often choosing the healthiest mate with the best genes.

This allows the male to pass his genes on to his offspring.

Regarding showiness, the most intriguing thing is that it is often a hindrance to their survival. The benefits, however, seem to outweigh the costs. When a female chooses a showier male, she is often choosing the healthiest mate with the best genes.

This allows the male to pass his genes on to his offspring.

Natural SelectionNatural Selection

It doesn’t fashion perfect organisms:1. Evolution is limited by historical

constraints.2. Adaptations are often compromises.3. Change and natural selection

interact.4. Selection can edit only existing

variation.

It doesn’t fashion perfect organisms:1. Evolution is limited by historical

constraints.2. Adaptations are often compromises.3. Change and natural selection

interact.4. Selection can edit only existing

variation.

1. Evolution is Limited By Historical

Constraints.

1. Evolution is Limited By Historical

Constraints. Each species comes from a long line of ancestral forms.

Ancestral anatomy isn’t scrapped by a new form, it’s a slow change.

This helps to explain why you don’t see an example of every species that has ever lived preserved in the fossil record.

Each species comes from a long line of ancestral forms.

Ancestral anatomy isn’t scrapped by a new form, it’s a slow change.

This helps to explain why you don’t see an example of every species that has ever lived preserved in the fossil record.

2. Adaptations are Often Compromises

2. Adaptations are Often Compromises

What makes us better in some ways, hinders us in others.

Take the tail of the peacock as an example. It makes the bird better in that it allows it to get a mate, it hinders it in its ability to evade predators.

What makes us better in some ways, hinders us in others.

Take the tail of the peacock as an example. It makes the bird better in that it allows it to get a mate, it hinders it in its ability to evade predators.

3. Chance and Natural Selection Interact

3. Chance and Natural Selection Interact

Chance events can alter a gene pool such as when a storm blows birds or insects over an ocean and to a new environment. The genes which arrive may not be the best in the former population.

The organisms pass through a “bottleneck.”

Chance events can alter a gene pool such as when a storm blows birds or insects over an ocean and to a new environment. The genes which arrive may not be the best in the former population.

The organisms pass through a “bottleneck.”

4. Selection Can Edit Only Existing

Variation

4. Selection Can Edit Only Existing

Variation Natural selection favors the fittest phenotype in any population, and new variations can’t arise on demand.

Natural selection favors the fittest phenotype in any population, and new variations can’t arise on demand.

chapter 23 the evolution of populations. a common misconception many people think individuals...

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given population

population geneticsscientists

nonevolving populations

allele frequencies

groups of individuals

blending hypothesiswhy

gregor mendel

work of mendel