CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2

THE EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE

Introduction• The world was formed 4,600 million years

ago.• Eukaryotic life forms appeared 3,600 years

later (1,000 million years ago).• First hominid hunters & gatherers recorded

4-7 million years ago, in East Africa– First gather wild fruits and hunt wild animals,

and then later domesticated the first plants andthen animals;then animals;

– then formed social structure, sharingknowledge of cultivation of plants and raisinganimals

TOPIC 1

PREHISTORIC ERA THROUGH THEPREHISTORIC ERA THROUGH THEMIDDLE AGES, and DOMESTICATION ,OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

• Prehistoric Erae sto c a– Human started farming 12,000 years ago

(pre-historic, as recorded history started 7000(p , yyears ago)

– Initially, grain crops like wheat werey gcultivated, then rye and barley, later followedby peas and beans

R e Barley Peas BeansRye Barley Wheat

Beans

Four main civilizations termed “rivercivilizations”:civilizations :

• Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia (7000Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia (7000BC)

E t th Nil (6000 BC)• Egypt on the Nile (6000 BC)

• China on the Yellow and Yangtze (5000 BC)China on the Yellow and Yangtze (5000 BC)

• India on Indus (5000 BC)

Believed to be the main catalyst for theemergence of agriculture and farmingemergence of agriculture and farming.

Agriculture originated from:

• Fertile Crescent of Tigris & Euphrates (now Iran andIraq)

• Nile valley (Egypt)

• Yangtze and Yellow River valleys (China)Yangtze and Yellow River valleys (China)

• Indus river valley (India- Pakistan)

• Asia Minor (now Turkey), Israel, Jordan, Syria

• Danube river and Macedonia (Europe)

• Tehuacan valley (Central Mexico)Tehuacan valley (Central Mexico)

Mesopotamia to 2500 BCE

Ancient China

Early cultures: Xia (c. 2200 B.C.),

Shang (c. 1750 B.C.)Zhou (c. 1050 B.C.)Zhou (c. 1050 B.C.)

Harappan/Indus River Valley:Harappan/Indus River Valley: Ganges, Mohenjo-Daro

Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization

Present day excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, an ancient city along the indus river

Wheat was the first to be sown andharvested using a sickle on aharvested, using a sickle on asignificant scale

Sickle from chalcolithic times (2500 1800 years BCE)

Dental swing plough

Sumerian Harvester's

(2500-1800 years BCE)

sickle, 3000 BCE

Millstone for grains

Reasons for introduction of farming

• Climate change

Reasons for introduction of farming

Climate change

G d l t iti f h t th t• Gradual transition from hunter-gatherer toagricultural economies

• Social reasons (e.g. accumulation of food( gsurplus for competitive gift-giving)

1.1 Global agricultural evolution

• Started 1650-850 BC (Bronze Age)

• Domestication of plants and animals was amilestone in early agriculture. Full dependency ondomestic crops and animals did not begin until thep gBronze Age

• Widespread use of metal tools, large scale cultivationWidespread use of metal tools, large scale cultivationwas started by the Sumerians. Agriculture allowed themhuge territorial expansion, making them the first empirebuilders

• Soon, the Egyptians, powered by effective farming of theNile valley, with a territorial expansion more than tripley, p pthe Sumerian empire in area.

Elevation map of Çatal Hüyük

Ancient Egyptian farmer

Elevation map of Çatal Hüyük Southern Anatolia, Turkey (part of Sumerian Empire)

1 2 Agriculture in the Middle Ages1.2 Agriculture in the Middle Ages(500-1500 AD)

• Much of the advancement was made by theMuslims (early 9th C)Muslims (early 9th C)

Th t iti f th N E t N th• The great cities of the Near East, NorthAfrica and Spain were developed by theMuslims using an elaborate agriculturalMuslims using an elaborate agriculturalsystem that included extensive irrigation andadvanced agricultural knowledgeadvanced agricultural knowledge

The Muslims revolutionized agriculture based on four key areas:key areas:

1. Irrigation system with machines, dams and ireservoirs

2. Scientific approach to farming with improved2. Scientific approach to farming with improved farming techniques made possible raising crops and animals away from place of origin.

3. Incentives based on land ownership, labourers' rights, financial rewards commensurate with their ff tefforts.

4. New crops and new cultivation techniques4. New crops and new cultivation techniquesintroduced derived from research.

B 14th d 15th C l t d i l hi dBy 14th and 15th C, new plants and animals were shippedfrom the Old World to the New World.

Agribusiness was borne with the idea of large scalecultivation for export, including linen and silk

1.3 Modern Agricultural evolution1950 – present

• Agriculture so improved that yield per land unitmany times more

• Rapid rise in mechanization in the 20th century,p ysaw farm activities performed with a speed andon a scale never imaginable before, leading tot d ffi itremendous efficiency

• Green revolution has begun

TOPIC 2

UTILIZATION OF HUMAN LABOURUTILIZATION OF HUMAN LABOUR,ANIMALS, MACHINES, INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY TRANSPORTATION ANDTECHNOLOGY, TRANSPORTATION ANDBIOTECHNOLOGY

LABOUR – HUMANS ANIMALS & MACHINESLABOUR – HUMANS, ANIMALS & MACHINES

• Agriculture started with human labour first• Agriculture started with human labour, first limited to family and then hired labour

• Heavy duties were performed by animals

• Today mechanization has replaced them although some jobs such as picking fruits andalthough some jobs such as picking fruits and vegetables, tapping rubber and harvesting oil palm fruits still done manuallyp y

Combine harvester

Information TechnologyIT enables quick dissemination of knowledge

Information is a resource in all businessesInformation is a resource in all businessesincluding agriculture

The way it is managed and used for decisionmaking has major impact on survival of themaking has major impact on survival of thebusiness.

In today's ever changing environment thoseith i f ti ill h j d twith information will has a major advantage

over those who don't.

Remote sensing, GPS and precision farming increased yields and varietiesg y

Revolution in transportationRevolution in transportation• 19th Century - development ofy p

railways and the steamship

• 20th century – development ofautomobile

• Invention of refrigerated transport –fallow the long distance transport of

heavy and perishable agriculturalproducep

• National and international marketswere created

Biotechnology in Agriculture

• While most industries use mechanical devices(machines) to make things, biotechnology usesli i i t k d t f iliving organisms to make products of economicvalue.

• Genetic engineering creates transgenic life• Genetic engineering creates transgenic lifeforms superior to their original version

TOPIC 3TOPIC 3

VALUES CUSTOMS d TABOOS iVALUES, CUSTOMS and TABOOS inTRADITIONAL and MODERNAGRICULTURE

3.1 Traditional AgricultureStill practiced in 3rd world countries such asAf i A i d L i A iAfrica, Asia and Latin America

Non-existent in Europe and America in the20th century20 century

Important characteristics of traditionalagriculture1. Local agro-ecosystem fully utilized1. Local agro ecosystem fully utilized

Consists of man, animal and plantexisting in a stable environmentexisting in a stable environment

2 F d d ti t d2. Food production as an art passed onthrough generations

3. Food is survival for community – mustybe enough and sustainable

4. Gentle preparation of soil with human andanimal labour No machinesanimal labour. No machines.

5 Pests and diseases controlled culturally No5. Pests and diseases controlled culturally. Nochemicals

6. Natural elements (rain and natural enemies ofpests) fully capitalized

7. Organic fertilizers, fallowing and plant-microbes mbiosis emphasi edsymbiosis emphasized

8 Native varieties used as spirits believed to8. Native varieties used, as spirits believed toreside in plants

3.2 Modern Agriculture

• Advances in science and technologytransformed traditional agriculture to modernagricultureagriculture

• Utilizes biological sciences, chemistry(f tili d ti id ) h i ( t(fertilizers and pesticides), physics (remotesensing), biotechnology, engineering(machinery), ICT (technology transfer) and( y) ( gy )economics (farm management)

• Depends on knowledge and skill• Depends on knowledge and skill

• However, disturbs local ecosystems withHowever, disturbs local ecosystems withexcessive chemicals usage

Important characteristics of modern i lagriculture

1. Intensive mass production seen as an1. Intensive mass production seen as anagribusiness

2. Extensive use of machinery andelectronics from land preparation toelectronics from land preparation toharvesting

3. Heavy usage of chemicals for fertilizationand control of pestsand control of pests

4 Hi h i ldi d i ti l4. High yielding modern varieties, clonesand hybrids

5. Workers with wide knowledge and skillsg

6 Industrial approach with monoculture and6. Industrial approach with monoculture andefficient management

7. Tradition and taboos disregarded byprofessional management

TOPIC 4

THE CULTURE OF NOMADIC ANDTHE CULTURE OF NOMADIC AND SEDENTARY AGRICULTURE

4.1 Nomadic Agriculture (Subsistence A i lt )Agriculture)

Also known as:

• Shifting cultivationg

• Slash & burn agriculture

• Swidden agriculture

• Still practiced in Asia (Sarawak and Indonesia),Af i d L ti A i D t b k tAfrica and Latin America. Dates back toNeolithic (Stone Age) era.

Characteristics:

1. Short term, planting lasts only 2-3 seasons.p g yCrops grown are annuals such as beans, root crops, maize and hill padi. Area then left to fallow Community moves to new sitefallow. Community moves to new site.

2 Cultivation is either on fertile virgin jungle soil2. Cultivation is either on fertile virgin jungle soilor on hill slopes (Niah Caves in Sarawak)

3. Customs and taboos play major role with headman making big decisions

4. Yields are poor, sufficient only for immediate p , yfamily and deterioriate yearly

5. Minimal fertilizer input resulting in loss of nutrients and fertility.y

6. If planting done on water catchment areas,6. If planting done on water catchment areas, floods can result, disrupting ecosystem.

7. Indiscriminate clearing can damage speciesaffecting biodiversity.affecting biodiversity.

4.2 Sedentary agriculture

• Cultivation on same piece of land forlong periodlong period

• Community does not move

• Either small-scale (subsistence) or big-scale (modern commercial)scale (modern commercial)

TOPIC 5

INFLUENCE OF RELIGIONINFLUENCE OF RELIGION ON AGRICULTURE

• Islam and other religions give a lot of attention on g gagriculture.

• Many Quranic verses mention agriculture eg An Nahl• Many Quranic verses mention agriculture eg An Nahlwhich reveals importance of bees in producing honey for food and medicine.

• Others on plants and domestic animals are found in Surah Al Baqarah (verse 22), Surah Al Kahfi (verses 32-41; 45), Surah Yaasin (verses 33-36) and Surah Luqman(verse10)

• Agricultural activity placed as fardhu kifayah where at least one person in a community must be involved in agriculture as a careeragriculture as a career.

Christian biblical principles for agricultural• Christian biblical principles for agriculturaldevelopment state that God is the firstf d i iti t f i ltfarmer and initiator of agriculture

• In Genesis 2:8 “Now the Lord God planted agarden in the east, in Eden; and there he placedthe man whom he had formed”the man whom he had formed

Christians believe that since God created nature• Christians believe that since God created nature, agricultural practices should not damage the environment: Christian stewardship modelenvironment: Christian stewardship model

• In Hindu caste system, the vaishas are du cas e sys e , e a s as a eAryans who tended cattle, considered asacred animal

• In aboriginal and native systems a• In aboriginal and native systems, a shaman will perform certain agricultural rights when opening new agricultural landrights when opening new agricultural land or starting a crop season, asking for rain or good harvestsor good harvests

Among ancient cultures, the Romans,Among ancient cultures, the Romans,worshipped Robigus, the protector of cropsand Pales who protected shepherds andand Pales, who protected shepherds andlivestock

In Greek mythology, the bull representedZeus, the sky god

The Egyptians believed in the goddessHathor, that was represented as a cow, p

Zeus, the sky god

TOPIC 6TOPIC 6

INFLUENCE OF LIFETYLEON AGRICULTURE

M d t l f li i i lt b i• Modern style of living uses agriculture as a businessrather than as a way of life in times of old.

• Lifestyle and size of a community influences agricultural activities.

Valentine’s Day, Mother’s Day and convocations result in demand for certain agricultural products such as flowers and chocolatesand chocolates

• Healthy lifestyle requires protein and vitamins for y y q pbalanced diet

• Beautiful homes require landscaped gardens and plants• Beautiful homes require landscaped gardens and plants