48

CHAPTER 3

TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAN PERSPECTIVES

Tribals in India are an inseparable part of the total population of the

country. India has the second largest concentration of tribal people

anywhere in the world except perhaps in Africa1. The prominent tribal

population covers around 15 percent of the total geographical area of the

country. They have their presence in all states and union territories except

Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry2. The tribal are the

children of nation and their life style is conditioned by the ecosystem.

India due to its diverse ecosystems has a wide variety of tribal population

throughout its length and breath. The areas inhabited by the tribal

constitute a significant part of the under developed areas of the country.

The tribals live mostly in isolated villages or hamlets. Tribal development

as a subject has been an important area of inquiry in the social sciences.

In recent years, the subject has acquired immense importance both at the

national and international level.

3.1 Tribal Development: A Paradigm Shift

Tribal development means upliftment of the tribal community

which is at different stages of socio-economic and cultural realms of

growth3. It implies social and economic development of the tribal people

through phased manner and time-bound integrated area development and

other programmes suiting the genius and the economic situation of the

people, ensuring progressive elimination of all forms of exploitation and

ensuring a move towards the goal of equality and social justice. It could

be done by bringing about a positive change in the quality of life of the

tribals through programs on health, education, employment, transport and

49

communication, technical manpower etc. with a view to bring them on

par with the people in the wider national society.

While the problem of tribal development in India is primarily

linked with the backwardness of tribal areas, poverty of the tribal people

and the issue of integration of tribals with rest of the population, the

concept of development in tribal situations pose a number of difficulties.

Even a good definition of tribal development may undergo scrutiny.

Scanders views tribal development as: (a) a movement emphasizing on

building upon organizational structures, (b) a programme emphasizing on

activities, (c) as a method of emphasizing on certain achievable ends, (d)

as a process of emphasizing upon what happens to people not only

economically and socially but also psychologically, and (e)

institutionalization of newly discovered skills and procedures leading to

social change without completely breaking away from the past4.

Giving equal emphasis on social, cultural, economic and other

aspects of life Belshaw, however, observed that “sociologically speaking,

development should be looked upon as an organized activity with the aim

of satisfying certain basic needs and to psychologically orient the triabals

to adopt new skills, attitudes and life styles, so that they build up the

inner strength and appropriate social and cultural infrastructure to stand

the pressure of the new situation and accrue benefits from the new

programmes and maintain higher levels”5. Belshaw considers

development as a positive change, which provides an increase in the

capacities of a society to organize for its own objectives and to carry out

its programmes more efficiently.

50

3.2 Tribal Population in India

According to the 2001 census, tribal accounted for 84.32 million,

equivalent to 8.2 percent of the country’s total population. In 1951 their

number rose to 19.10 million which was around 5.29 percent of total

population of India. During the 1961 census presidential orders were

taken into consideration, which automatically resulted in an increase in

the number of tribal communities, thereby increasing the tribal population

which stood at being 30.1 million (6.85%).

In 1971, by the consultant presidential orders again resulted in an

increase in the number of tribal communities’ consequent their number

rose to 38.0 million (6.93%). By 1981 the population of STs rise to 51.6

million (7.53%) of the total population of the country.

According to 1991 census, the population of Scheduled Tribes in

the country was 67.8 million, constituting about 8.10 percent of the total

population. The tribal population is increasing along with the Indian

population but at as rate lower than that of general population. The

growth in the tribal population during the last 50 years has been set out at

the table 3.2.1. The decennial growth rates are significantly lower than

the average general population growth. The general population from 1951

to 2001 has increased by 667.51 millions. The tribal population from

1951 to 2001 increased by 65.2 millions. The percentage of tribal

population to total population has increased only 2.91 percent from 1951

to 2001.

51

Table 3.2.1

Distribution of Tribal Population (in millions)

Year Scheduled Tribes

General Population

Percentage of ST to Total Population

1951 19.1 361.1 5.29

1961 30.1 439.2 6.85

1971 38.0 548.2 6.93

1981 51.6 685.2 7.53

1991 67.8 846.3 8.10

2001 84.3 1028.61 8.20

Source: Annual Report (2007-08), Ministry of Tribal Affair, Govt. of India.

The tribal population in India is unevenly distributed in different

States/Union Territories. It is reflected within the data presented in table

3.2.2. State wise Madhya Pradesh accounts for the highest percentage of

tribal population to total tribal population of the country (14.51%)

followed by Maharashtra (10.7%), Orissa (9.66%), Gujarat (8.87%),

Rajasthan (8.42%), Jharkhand (8.40%) and Chhattisgarh (7.85%). In fact,

68 percent of the country’s tribals population lives in these seven states.

The proportion of the tribals to the total population of the

States/Union Territory is highest in Mizoram (94.5 %) and Lakshadweep

(94.5 %) followed by Nagaland (89.1%), Meghalaya (85.9 %), within the

major states Chhattisgarh (31.8%) has the highest percentage of STs

population followed by Jharkhand (26.3%) and Orissa (22.1%). These

populations are lowest in Uttar Pradesh (0.1%), Bihar (0.9%), Tamil

Nadu (1.0%) and Kerala (1.10%). Out of their total population in the

country, 91.7 percent are living in rural areas, whereas, only 8.3 percent

in urban areas.

52

Table 3.2.2

Distribution of Tribal Population in Different States

S. No. States Percentage of Tribal Population in States to the Total Tribal Population of the Country

1. Madhya Pradesh 14.51

2. Maharashtra 10.71

3. Orissa 9.66

4. Gujarat 8.87

5. Rajasthan 8.42

6. Jharkhand 8.40

7. Chhattisgarh 7.85

8. Andhra Pradesh 5.96

9. West Bengal 5.23

10. Karnataka 4.11

11. Assam 3.92

12. Meghalaya 2.36

13. Nagaland 2.10

14. Jammu& Kashmir 1.31

15. Tripura 1.18

16. Mizoram 1.00

17. Bihar 0.90

18. Manipur 0.88

19. Arunachal Pradesh 0.84

20. Tamil Nadu 0.77

21. Kerala 0.43

22. Uttaranchal 0.30

23. Himachal Pradesh 0.29

53

24. Dadra & Nagar Haveli

0.16

25. Sikkim 0.13

26. Uttar Pradesh 0.13

Source: Census of India, 2001.

3.3 Major Tribal Groups

India is one of the few nations in the world with a thriving tribal

population in different parts of the country. There are over 700 scheduled

tribes notified under Article 342 of the constitution of India. The largest

numbers of scheduled tribes are in the state of Orissa (i.e. 62)6. Some of

the major tribes of different states are mentioned in the following table

3.3.1.

Table 3.3.1 Distribution of Major Tribes in India

States Tribes

Andhra Pradesh Bhil, Chenchu, Gond, Kondas, Sugalis, Koyas, Gadabas, Doras, Valmiki, Yenadis.

Arunanchal Pradesh Abor, Aka, Adi, Apatani, Dafla, Galong, Khampti, Khowa, Khowa, Mishmi, Momba.

Assam Garo, Khasi, Hajong, Hmar, Kukis, Karbi, Kachari, Boro.

Bihar Asur, Baiga, Birhor, Banjara, Santhal, Gond, Ho, Kharwar, Munda, Oraon, Parhaiya.

Chattisgarh Agariya, Baiga, Bhil, Birhor, Gond, Munda, Kol, Pardhan, Pardhi, Parja, Halba, Khariya, Khairwar.

Goa Dhodia, Dubla (Halpati), Naikda (Talavia), Siddi (Nayaka),Varli.

Gujarat Barda, Bavacha, Bhil, Charan, Dhodia, Siddi, Pardhi, Gond.

Himachal Pradesh Bhot, Gaddi, Gujjar, Lahula, Pangwala, Swangla, Jad.

54

Jammu & Kashmir Balti, Beda, Gujjar, Gaddi, Garra.

Jharkhand Asur, Baiga, Banjara, Birhor, Gond, Munda, Ho.

Karnataka Adiyan, Barda, Bhil, Chenchu, Gond, Koya, Palliyan Toda.

Kerala Adiyan, Irular, Kadar, Koraga, Hill Pulaya, Malayan.

Madhya Pradesh Agariya, Baiga, Gond, Munda, Kol, Korku, Birhor, Sahariya, Parja, Bhil.

Maharashtra Andh, Bhil, Gond, Oraon Pardhi, Dhodia.

Manipur Aimol, Chiru, Kabui, Koirao, Angamis, Mao, Paita, Sema.

Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Hajong, Lakher.

Mizoram Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Jayantia, Mikir, Mizo.

Nagaland Naga, Kuki, Garo, Kachari, Mikir.

Orissa Baiga, Banjara, Birhor, Chenchu, Gadaba, Gond, Ho, Jatapu, Juang, Mandari, Kharia, Kol, Khond, Santhal, Tharua, Oraon, Saora.

Rajasthan Bhil, Damor ina, Sahariya, Grasia.

Sikkim Bhutia, Lepcha.

TamilNadu Adiyan, Irular, Toda, Kadar, Kota, Malasur, Malayalee, Koraga, Paliyan, Kammara, Maha Malasur, Sholaga.

Tripura Bhil, Bhutia, Chakma, Garoo, Jamatiya, Khasia, Kuki, Lushai, Munda, Santhal.

Uttarakand Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Raji, Tharu.

Uttar Pradesh Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Raji, Tharu, Gond, Kharwar Sahariya.

Andaman & Nicobar Island

Andamanese, Jarawas, Nicobarese, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.

Dadra & Nagar Haveli Dhodia, Dubla, Kathodi, Kokna, Koli Dhor, Naikda, Varali.

Daman & Diu Dhodia, Dubla, Naikda, Siddi, Varali.

Source: Annual Report (2009-10), Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India.

55

3.4 Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs)

Among the scheduled tribes, there are certain communities who are

characterized as pre-agriculture level of technology, stagnant or declining

population, extremely low literacy and subsistence level of economy7. 75

such groups in 17 states and 01 Union Territory of Andaman & Nicobar

island had begun to be identified in mid-70s and ended in the year 1993-

94 and categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (earlier

known as Primitive Tribal Groups-PTGs) and according to 2001 census

their total population is 3262960.

Most of these groups are small in number, have not attained any

significant level of social and economic progress and generally inhabit

remote localities having poor infrastructure and administrative support. A

few are still hunter-gatherers. Therefore, they become the most

vulnerable sections among the scheduled tribes. Priority is, therefore,

required to be accorded for their protection and development, and

checking the declining trend of their population8. PTG women are

extremely fond of ornaments and decorate themselves with tattoo marks

on their body. The women wear metal collars, necklaces made of coins,

todas etc., made of silver9.

56

Table 3.4.1

Primitive Tribal Groups in India

Name of the States/UTs

Name of Primitive Tribal Group Population

1. Andhra Pradesh

1. Bodo Gadaba -- 2. Bondo Poraja --

3. Chenchu 49232 4. Dongaria Khonds -- 5. Gutob Gadaba -- 6. Khond Poraja -- 7. Kolam -- 8. Konda Reddis 83096 9. Konda Savaras --

10. KuttiyaKondhs --

11. Parangi Poroja -- 12. Thoti 2074

Total 134402

2.Bihar

&

3. Jharkhand

13. Asur

Bihar Jharkhand 181 10347

14. Birhor 406 7514

15. Birjia 17 5356

16. Hill Kharia -- --

17. Korwa 703 27177

18. Mal Pharia 4631 115093

19. Paharias 2429 20786 20. Sauria Paraharia 585 31050

21. Savar 420 6004

Total 9372 223327

4. Gujarat

22. Kathodi 5820

23. Kotwalia --

24. Padhar 22421

25. Siddi 4662

26. Kolgha --

Total 36903

5. Karnataka

27. Jenu Kuruba 29828

28. Koraga 16071

Total 45899

6. Kerala

29. Cholanaikan --

30. Kadar 2145

31. Kattunaikan 14715

32. Kurumbas 1152 33. Koraga 2174 Total 20186

57

7. Madhya Pradesh

&

8.Chhattisgarh

Madhya Pradesh

Chhattisgarh

34. Abujh Maria - -

35. Baiga 332936 6993

36. Bharia 152470 88981

37. Birhor 143 1744

38. Hill Korwa - -

39. Kamar 2424 23113

40. Sahariya 450217 561

Total 938190 121392

9. Maharashtra

41. Kathodi 235022

42. Kolam 173646

43. Maria Gond -

Total 408668

10.Manipur 44. Maram Naga 1225

11.Orissa

45. Chuktia Bhunjia -

46. Birhor 702

47. Bondo 9378

48. Didayi 7371

49. Dongria Khond -

50. Juang 41339

51. Kharia 188331

52. Kutia Khond -

53. Lanjia Saura -

54. Lodha 8905

55. Mankirdia 1050

56. Paudi Bhuyan -

57. Saura 473233

Total 730309

12.Rajasthan 58. Saharia 76237

13.Tamil Nadu

59. Irular 155606

60. Kattunayakan 45227

61. Kota 925

62. Korumba -

63. Paniyan 9121

64. Toda 1560

Total 212439

14.Tripura 65. Riang 165103

15.Uttar Pradesh

&

16.Uttrakhand

Uttar Pradesh

Uttrakhand

66. Buksa 4367 46771

67. Raji 998 517

Total 5365 47288

17.West Bengal 68. Birhor 1017

58

69. Lodha 84966

70. Toto -

Total 85983

18.Andaman

&

Nicobar Island

71. Great Andamanese 43

72. Jarawa 240

73. Onge 96

74. Sentinelese 39 75. Shom Pen 254 Total 672

All India Grand Total 3262960 Source: Census of India, 2001.

3.5 Ethnographic Distribution of Tribes

Concentrations of tribal people are dispersed crossing one to

another political boundary of the states and union territories of India.

Tribal communities live in about 15 percent of the country’s area, in

various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and

forests to hills and the inaccessible areas. However, for almost same

racial livestock, similar characteristics, better understanding of

demographic situation and others. Indian subcontinent is permutated into

seven tribal zones10, 11 & 12. In these zones, the important tribal groups and

their socio-cultural aspects are briefly discussed in the following

manners:

North-Eastern Zone: Location of north-eastern tribal zone is pervaded

throughout the Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya and

Mizoram. This zone is noticed as the inhabitation of plentiful tribal

groups like the Adi, Khowa, Singpho, Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Kuki,

Aimol, Chiru, Moyan, Sema, Hajong, Nega, Mikir, Bhil, Bhutia, Lepcha,

Oraon, Santal, Riang and other tribes. Their physical appearances impart

an aspersion that they belong to the mongoloid racial livestock. They

generally select their ideal inhabiting location which is surrounded by

natural resources. Shifting cultivation is resorted as their primary

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occupation whereas hunting, gathering, fishing, labouring, basket making

etc. are practised as secondary purposes. These tribal groups are non-

vegetarian and addicted to drink rice bear. They are endogamous and

prefer to polygamy system of marriage. For ensuring normal delivery of

expectant mother, they arrange worship and sacrifice animals or birds.

They usually bury the dead body. There, traditional political organization

is existed for justifying all social disputes. These tribal people are devoted

to propitiate both benevolent and malevolent god and goddess to secure

peace and appease respectively.

Eastern Zone: Eastern tribal zone consists of Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,

Sikkim and West-Bengal. The originations of 132 tribes and their sub

groups are identified all over the states of this zone. The Asur, Baiga,

Birhor, Gond, Oraon, Munda, Santal, Bhutia, Chenchu, Ho, Lodha, Rajur,

Soara, Lepcha, Garo, Kora, Nagessia, Rabha, Toto and others are

considerable as highly noticeable tribes whose physical appearance are

committed to report as the descendants of the mangoloid racial livestock.

These tribes traditionally practise hunting and gathering occupations.

Shifting cultivation and rarely settled cultivation are also practised by

them. Lodha tribal groups of this zone are highly appreciated for making

the decorated bridal palanquin. They are tribal endogamous but clan

exogamous and negotiation marriage is preferred to them. There is the

existence of active traditional village council consisting of headman,

assistant headman, priest and messengers. They investigate the socio-

cultural problems and take necessary action. Their hearty respect is

concentrated to the religious belief. By making prayer to their primordial

God, they solicit for prevailing and better harvesting.

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Northern Zone: Northern tribal zone embodied Himachal Pradesh, Uttar

Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Concentrations of the Bhot, Gaddi, Gujjar,

Kanaura, Swangala, Bhutia, Buksa, Raji, Jaunsari, Tharu and other

important tribes of are come to notice throughout this zone. Their

physical characters report that they are originated from Mongoloid racial

livestock. These tribal groups are habituated to tolerate the extreme cold

weather. In spite of their socio cultural similarity, they are permuted in

accordance with their occupational differences. The typical example of

Bhutia tribal groups reports that they are traditionally involved in

business of borax, tails of yaks, herbs, musk etc. Traditionally, Rajis

practise nomadic hunting and gathering occupations whereas other tribal

groups earn through agricultural labour. They are endogamous and

patrilineal tribal groups. According to special requirement, they also

sometimes devote themselves in practicing levirate, surrogate and cross

cousin marriage. They observe name giving ceremony as auspicious day.

After death, they generally cremate the dead body. Their traditional

political head is empowered to justify all socio-cultural disputes. They

worship all Hindu deities for various purposes.

Central Zone: Central tribal zone is extended in Madhya Pradesh and

Chhattisgarh where largest tribal people are settled down. Due to occupy

the central place and produce highest tribal population, this zone is

acquainted as tribal heart of India. However, this zone is adorned by birth

of the Baiga, Bharia, Bhil, Birhor, Gond, Halba, Kamar, Karku, Khaira,

Kol, Hill Korwa, Munda, Parja, Saharia and other tribes whose physical

structures indicate that they belong to Proto-Australoid racial livestock,

specially during summer season, these tribal group face problem of

inadequacy of water. Wage earning, fuel selling, rickshaw pulling,

crafting etc. occupations are practised to pass their daily life. They prefer

61

to negotiation marriage which is extremely prohibited to conduct in same

clan. Both remarriage and widow marriage are rarely practised among

them. They observe child birth as very auspicious day. Their dead body is

buried projecting face upwards and directing head towards south. As

patrilineal tribe, father’s properties are equally transmitted to his sons.

Their active traditional political organization is functionized to maintain

socio cultural norms and justify the conflicts. They are inspired to

worship the Hindu God and Goddesses.

Western Zone: Western tribal zone consists of Dadra & Nagar Haveli,

Gujarat, Goa, Daman & Diu, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. There is

followed the sporadical dispersions of the Dhosia, Konka, Verli, Barda,

Bhil, Dubla, Gond, Koli, Pomla, Siddi, Andh, Baiga, Mina, Birhul,

Halba, Kamar, Oraon, Parja and other tribal groups. The physical

appearances of these tribal groups are concerned as the descendants of

Proto-Australoid racial livestock. Hunting and food gathering are resorted

as their traditional occupation. But at the present state, they are practising

wage labour. Except negotiation, elopement process of marriage is also

conducted among them. They are socially permitted to cremate or bury

the dead body. As patrilineal tribes father’s properties are transmitted

through male line. In every tribal group of this zone, there is existence of

a recognized traditional political organization to give the propagation

only to the male for justifying the socio-cultural disputes by the direct

supervision of ‘Gameti’ or ‘Mukhia’ or headman. They use to celebrate

the various deities like Miri Mata, Hindole Devi and others.

Southern Zone: The extension of southern tribal zone is followed

throughout Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Almost

all regions of this zone are habituated by 153 tribal groups and their sub-

62

groups.The Andh, Bhil, Chenchu, Gond, Jatapu, Khond, Koya, Kulia,

Yanadis, Barda, Irular, Kota, Toda, Yerava, Araden, Uraly, Malasar,

Koraga, Solasa and others are come to notice as important tribal groups

whose physical structures report that they belong to the Caucasoid and

Proto-Australoid racial live stocks. Collecting honey, roots, tubers,

leaves, tamarind etc. and practicing slash and burn (Kumri) cultivation,

they exist their daily life. In an exceptional case, Toda tribal group of this

zone adopt pastoral life and milking and churning are practised as their

main sources of economic subsistence. Due to female infanticide among

them, there always runs the inadequacy of marriageable girls which

motivate them to practise polyandry marriage. Clan exogamy is

performed whereas remarriage and divorce are rarely permitted among

them. By worshipping ancestors, they bury the dead body. After death of

father inheritance is passed through male line. They are inspired for

propitiating to the God of mountain (Towoit), God of sacred place

(Townor) and other.

Island Zone: Island tribal zone is constituted by Andamanese, Jarewas,

Nicobarese, Onges, Sentiunelses, Shom Pens and other tribes who

inhabiting Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep. In Accordance with their

physical appearances, they are assessed that they belong to Negrito and

Mongoloid racial live stocks. Hunting and food gathering are reported as

their traditional occupation. But now a days, they are also motivating to

practise fishing, basket making etc. Their partial economic need is also

fulfilled by horticultural labouring. For consuming and commercial

purpose, they sometimes domesticate pig and goat. In this tribal zone,

both male and female are almost naked. Sometimes, they use leaves and

bark of tree just for covering their sex part only. But recently, the present

generation start to wear the small clothes. They are clan exogamous but

63

in special cases, they are socially permitted to marry with girls who are

not related consanguinity for minimum two ascending generations. The

monogamy system of marriage is preferred to these tribal groups. They

generally bury the dead body and for respecting religious faith, they

celebrate the burial ceremony. After death, father’s properties are equally

distributed to sons. Especially Nicobareses are so much addicted to obey

their traditional political organizations which regulate their social rules

and norms. They purposively worship Soni Mata, Devi Mata and other

deities.

3.6 Constitutional Safeguards

With the dawn of independence and adoption of the Constitution of

free India, the British policy of isolation and non-interference was

replaced by a policy of integration through development. The tribal

population in India can be classified into four discernible divisions.

(1) Tribals who confine themselves to original forest habitats and are still

distinctive in their pattern of life. They may be termed as tribal

communities. (2) Tribals who have more or less settled down in rural

areas, taking to agriculture and other allied occupation. This category of

people may be termed as semi- tribal communities. (3) Tribal who have

migrated to urban or semi-urban and rural areas are engaged in ‘civilized’

occupation in industries and other vocations and who have, with

discrimination, adopted traits and culture of other population of the

country. These may be classed as ‘semi-assimilated’ tribal communities.

(4) Totally assimilated tribals13.

64

The Constitution of India has provided many safeguards for the

welfare and development of the tribals. The constitutional provisions may

be divided into four major heads:

1) Protective Provisions

2) Developmental Provisions

3) Administrative Provisions

4) Reservation Provisions

1. Protective Provisions: The Protective Provisions are meant to provide

them protection from social and economic exploitation and injustice.

Following are the some articles:

Article15 (4): The state to make special provision for the advancement of

any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the

scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.

Article 16: Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to

employment or appointment to offices under the state.

Article16 (4): The state to make provisions for reservation in

appointment, posts in favour of any backward class citizens, which in the

opinion of the state is not adequately represented in the services under the

state.

Article 19 (5): Safeguard of tribal interest in property.

Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of the

scheduled tribes, scheduled castes and other weaker sections.

Article 342: Specifying the tribes or tribal communities as scheduled

tribes.

65

2. Developmental Provisions: The development provisions promote with

special care for providing them positive steps for their socio-economic

development. Different articles in these head are:

Article 275 (1): Grants-in-Aid to be made available from the

consolidated fund of India each year for promoting the welfare of the

scheduled tribes and administration of scheduled areas.

3. Administrative Provisions: The administrative provision under the

fifth and sixth schedules gives special powers to the states for the

protection and governance of tribal areas. The main articles are discussed

below:

Article244 (1): Special provisions, spelt out in the fifth scheduled for the

administration and control of scheduled areas and the scheduled tribes in

any state (other than the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and

Mizoram).

Article244 (2): Special provision, spelt out in the sixth scheduled for the

administration of tribal areas in the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura

and Mizoram by designating certain tribal areas as autonomous district

and autonomous region and also by constituting district councils,

autonomous councils and regional councils.

Article 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled

Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes.

4. Reservation Provisions: The reservation provisions ensure due

representation of the scheduled tribes and scheduled castes in legislative

bodies and government jobs. The salient articles in the theme are:

66

Article 330: Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled

tribes in the house of the people.

Article 332: Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled

tribes in the state legislative assemblies.

Article 243(D): Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and the

scheduled tribes in every panchayat.

Article 335: Claims of scheduled tribes in the appointment to services

and posts.

Article 340: Appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions

of socially and educationally backward classes and the difficulties under

which they labour and to make recommendations to remove such

difficulties and to improve their conditions.

In addition to the above constitutional provisions, there are

numbers of laws which provide protection and safeguards for the interest

of the scheduled tribes. These Acts and regulations emanate from various

constitutional provisions. Some of the important Acts are as follows:

Ø Protection of civil right Act,1955

Ø Forest Conservation Act, 1980

Ø Bonded labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986

Ø Child labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986

Ø Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,

1989

Ø PESA : Extension of the 73rd and 74th amendments of the constitution

to the scheduled areas through the provisions of the panchayats

(Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 to ensure effective

67

participation of the tribals in the process of planning and decision

making.

Ø The Schedule tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (Recognition

of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.

3.7 Provision of Scheduled Areas

The tribal people live in contiguous areas unlike other

communities. It is, therefore, much simpler to have an area approach for

development activities as well as regulatory provisions to protect their

interests. In order to protect their interests with regard to land and other

social issues, various provisions have been enshrined in the Fifth

Schedule of the Constitution.

The Fifth Schedule under Article 244 (1) of the Constitution

defines “Scheduled Areas” as such areas as the President may by order

declare to be Scheduled Areas after consultation with the Governor of

that State. The concept of Scheduled Area emerged during Fifth Five

Year plan which is defined under Article 244 (1) and Article 244 (2). The

Scheduled Area has been framed to protect the interest of Scheduled

Tribes with regard to their land and other social issues.

The Sixth Schedule under Article 244 (2) of the Constitution

relates to those areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and

Mizoram which are declared as "tribal areas" and provides for District or

Regional Autonomous Councils for such areas. These councils have wide

ranging legislative, judicial and executive powers.

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Fifth Schedule Areas:

The criteria for declaring any area as a "Scheduled Area" under the Fifth

Schedule are:

i. Preponderance of tribal population,

ii. Compactness and reasonable size of the area,

iii. A viable administrative entity such as a district, block or taluk, and

iv. Economic backwardness of the area as compared to the

neighboring areas.

The specification of "Scheduled Areas" in relation to a State is by a

notified order of the President, after consultation with the State

Government concerned. The same applies in the case of any alteration,

increase, decrease, incorporation of new areas, or rescinding any Orders

relating to "Scheduled Areas".

Table 3.7.1

Notification of Scheduled Areas

S. No. Name of Order Date of

Notification

Name of State(s) for which applicable

1. The Scheduled Areas (Part A States) Order, 1950 (C.O.9)

26.1.1950 Andhra Pradesh

2. The Scheduled Areas (Part B States) Order, 1950 (C.O.26)

7.12.1950 Andhra Pradesh

3. The Scheduled Areas (Himachal

Pradesh) Order, 1975 (C.O.102)

21.11.1975 Himachal Pradesh

4. The Scheduled Areas (States of

Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa) Order, 1977 (C.O. 109)

31.12.1977 Gujarat and Orissa

5. The Scheduled Areas (State of 12.2.1981 Rajasthan

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Rajasthan) Order, 1981 (C.O.114)

6. The Scheduled Areas(Maharashtra) Order, 1985 (C.O.123)

2.12.1985 Maharashtra

7. The Scheduled Areas (States of Chhattisgarh Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh) Order, 2003 (C.O. 192)

.

20.2.2003 Chhattisgarh and

Madhya Pradesh

8. The Scheduled Areas (State of

Jharkhand) Order, 2007 (C.O. 229)

11.04.2007 Jharkhand

Source: Annual Report (2009-10), Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India.

The States of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar were reorganized vide the

Madhya Pradesh Reorganization Act, 2000 and Bihar Reorganization

Act, 2000 respectively.

Consequently, a portion of Scheduled Areas of the composite State

of Madhya Pradesh stood transferred to the newly formed State of

Chhattisgarh and the whole of such areas stood transferred to Jharkhand

from the parent State of Bihar. In order to ensure that members of the

Scheduled Tribes in the newly formed States continue to get the benefits

available under the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution, it became

necessary to amend the Scheduled Areas (States of Bihar, Gujarat,

Madhya Pradesh and Orissa) Order 1977 (C.O.109) issued on 31

December, 1977 in so far as it related to the composite States of Bihar

and Madhya Pradesh. The President has promulgated a new

Constitutional Order specifying the Scheduled Areas in respect of the

States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh on 20th February

2003. The Scheduled Areas in the State of Jharkhand have been redefined

to be the Scheduled Areas within the State of Jharkhand vide the

Scheduled Areas (State of Jharkhand) Order, 2007 (Constitutional Order

229) dated 11-04-2007.

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The Sixth Schedule:

The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India under Article 244

makes provisions for the administration of tribal areas through

Autonomous District/Regional Councils in the States of Assam,

Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura. The term "tribal areas" generally

means areas with a preponderance of tribal population. However, the

Constitution of India recognizes the tribal areas within the States of

Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram, as those areas are specified in

Parts I, II, IIA and III of the table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth

Schedule. In other words, areas where provisions of Sixth Schedule are

applicable are known as "tribal areas". In relation to these areas,

Autonomous District Councils, each having not more than thirty

members, have been set up. These Councils are elected bodies and have

powers of legislation, administration of justice apart from executive,

developmental and financial responsibilities. The State wise details of

tribal areas are as under:

Part I (Assam)

1. The North Cachar Hills District

2. The Karbi-Anglong District

3. The Bodo Land Territorial Area District

Part II (Meghalaya)

1. Khasi Hills District

2. Jaintia Hills District

3. The Garo Hills District

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[Part IIA] (Tripura)

Tripura Tribal Areas District

Part III (Mizoram)

1. The Chakma District

2. The Mara District

3. The Lai District

The District or Regional Councils are empowered to make rules

with the approval of the Governor with regard to matters like

establishment, construction or management of primary schools,

dispensaries, markets, cattle ponds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road transport

and water-ways in the district. The Autonomous Councils of the North

Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong have been granted additional powers to

make laws with respect to other matters like secondary education,

agriculture, social security and social insurance, public health and

sanitation, minor irrigation etc. The Councils have also been conferred

powers under the Civil Procedure Code and Criminal Procedure Code for

trial of certain suits and offences, as also the powers of a revenue

authority for their area for collection of revenue and taxes and other

powers for the regulation and management of natural resources.

3.8 Development Initiatives

The framers of the Constitution while taking note of the centuries

old injustice perpetrated against the tribal communities, have adopted

two-pronged strategy of tribal development which seeks to provide them

protection from exploitation and assist them in their economic

development. Efforts made from the beginning of the planned era through

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various developmental plans, policies, special strategies and programs.

The major initiatives for the development of scheduled tribes are as

follows:

Tribal Sub-Plan Strategy:

In the planning process of the country, economic growth with

equity has been the recurrent mantra. The succeeding five year plans have

emphasized it from time to time and it was thought that with the general

growth of economy, benefit would automatically travel to the more

backward sections and more backward areas. However, in the course of

time it was realize that the effect did not occur and the poorer and more

backward sections remained deprived of any beneficial fallout of the

plan. Towards the concluding part of the fourth five year plan, an expert

committee suggested sharper focus on tribal development programmes

which later evolved into Tribal Sub-Plan Strategy14.

The concept of the Tribal Sub Plan evolved against this

background and was adopted for the first time at the beginning of the 5th

Five Year Plan in 1974-75. The TSP as originally conceived had a two

pronged strategy: promotion of developmental activities to raise the

living standards of Scheduled Tribes and protection of their interest

through legal and administrative support. The TSP mechanism has,

however, become routine and humdrum in most of the States with little

awareness of its original objectives15.

The long term objectives of the sub-plan are: to narrow the gap

between the levels of development of tribal and other areas, and to

improve the quality of life of the tribal communities. The Sub- Plan is not

a scheme, it represents a new approach. The strategy clearly spelt out the

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problem of tribal development into two parts- (1) that of areas of having

more than 50 percent tribal concentration, and the scheduled areas, and (2)

that of areas with dispersed tribal population. Besides these two

categories, primitive tribal communities at the pre agriculture level of

technology were identified as a special group16.

Components of Tribal Sub-Plan:

The main components of tribal-sub plan strategy are:

· Integrated Tribal Development Agencies/Integrated Tribal

Development Projects (ITDA/ITDP).

· Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) Pockets.

· Clusters.

· Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) and

· Dispersed Tribal Groups (DTGs).

Integrated Tribal Development Agencies/ Integrated Tribal

Development Projects (ITDA/ITDP):

A new strategy has been evolved for planning the development of

the tribal communities during the Fifth Plan period. The new strategy

envisages the preparation of sub-plan for the tribal areas. The first

exercise in this regard is to demarcate the tribal areas based on the tribal

population. These are: (i) areas, where the tribal concentration of 50

percent or above, (ii) areas of dispersed tribal population below 50

percent and (iii) extremely backward and isolated communities17.

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Modified Areas Development Approach (MADA):

For all round development of the tribals outside the sub-plan areas

a new programme called Modified Areas Development Approach

(MADA) was launched in 1978-79. The criterion for selection of this area

was areas having a population of 10000 or more with at least 50 percent

tribal concentration. The identified areas called as MADA Pockets. In

these pockets individual family-oriented schemes as well as community

benefit oriented programmes are to be implemented. There is a MADA

level Advisory Committee for each MADA Sub-Collector concerned with

officials and non-officials like people representatives as members. The

Advisory Committee is responsible for drawn up programmes and

oversees the implementation.

The tribal development under TSP envisages (i) Educational

promotion schemes of schools, residential schools, hostels, scholarships,

special coaching/training etc. (ii) Agriculture and allied activities by

providing minor and medium irrigation facilities, animal husbandry,

dairying, poultry etc. (iii) Improvised credit and marketing facilities for

agriculture and minor forest products, (iv) Special training programmes to

tribal farmers, (v) Irrigation and power facilities to promote agricultural

production and small scale industry etc., (vi) Provision of basic

infrastructure for speeding up the socio-economic development of the

tribal areas through community centres, communication network, schools,

health centers, rural electrification, drinking water and other facilities etc.

are to be provided to the tribals, (vii) ITDP, MADA, Cluster and

Primitive Tribal Groups special comprehensive developmental projects

were to be prepared by the States/UTs18.

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The following statement will show that after the introduction of TSP

concept in the fifth five-year plan, there has been a tremendous increase

in the flow of funds for tribal development.

Table 3.8.1

Plan Outlay for Tribal Development (Rs. crores)

Five Year Plan

Total Plan outlay

Tribal Development

Programmes/ Flow to TSP

Percentage

1st Plan 1960 19.93 1.00

2nd Plan 4672 41.92 0.90

3rd Plan 8577 50.53 0.60

4th Plan 15902 75.00 0.50

5th Plan 39322 1102.00 3.01

6th Plan 97500 5535.00 5.00

7th Plan 1,80,000 10,500.00 5.00

8th Plan 1,66,756.36 15,800.00 9.47

9th Plan 2,89,147.14 23,375.08 8.08

Source: Annual Report (2008-2009), Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India.

Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub-Plan (SCA to TSP):

This is a major programme for the focused development of tribals

and tribal areas. This is treated as an additive to the State Plan, for areas

where State Plan provisions are not normally forthcoming to bring about

economic development to tribals. The programme was launched during

1974 and till the end of the Ninth Five year Plan, the SCA to TSP was

76

meant for filling up critical gaps in the family-based income- generating

activities of TSP19.

From the Tenth Five Year Plan period, the objective and scope of

SCA to TSP, has been expanded to cover the employment-cum-income

generation activities and infrastructure incidental thereto. Besides family-

based activities, other activities run by the Self-Help Groups (SHGs)/

Community can also be taken up. The ultimate objective of extending

SCA to TSP is to boost the demand-based income-generation

programmes and thus raise the economic and social status of tribals.

While the revised guidelines for implementation by the States were issued

in May, 2003, this has been further modified in January 2008 indicating

the following procedural changes for the Eleventh Plan20.

Focus to be made on (a) watershed based income generation

programmes, (b) specific income generation activities like skill/

technology training, storage, small scale trading inputs etc., (c)

connectivity to markets, service delivery centres etc.

It is basically meant for Family Oriented Income Generation

(FOIG) schemes in sectors like agriculture, horticulture, minor irrigation,

soil conservation, animal husbandry, forest, education, cooperatives,

fisheries, village and small industries etc; and infrastructural development

incidental there to. The assistance given is hundred percent and it is

expected to act as a catalyst for giving a boost to investment by the State

governments and financial institutions. The release of fund is broadly on

the basis of the scheduled tribe population, geographical area and inverse

proportion of per capita net state domestic product21.

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SCA is provided to the 22 Tribal Sub-Plan States and 2 Union

Territories including the North Eastern States of Assam, Manipur, Sikkim

and Tripura and two Union territories. However, since 2003-04 funds

meant for UTs are being provided for in the budget of Ministry of Home

Affairs and Ministry is not concerned with the UTs22.

The SCA is released for economic development of 192 Integrated

Tribal Development Projects/Integrated Tribal Development Agencies

(ITDPs/ITDAs), 259 Modified Area Development Approach (MADA)

Pockets, 82 Clusters, 75 Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) and Dispersed

Tribal Groups (DTGs) - those tribals who fall outside the aforesaid

categories.

Table 3.8.2

States/UTs wise Component of TSP

S. No.

Number of

States/UTs ITDPs/ITDAs MADA Pockets

Clusters PGTs

1. Andhra Pradesh # 8 41 17 12

2. Assam 19 -- -- --

3. Bihar -- 7 -- 9**

4. Chattisgarh # 19 9 2 **

5. Gujarat # 9 1 -- 5

6. Himachal Pradesh # 5 2 -- --

7. Jammu & Kashmir -- -- -- --

8. Jharkhand # 14 34 7 **

9. Karnataka 5 -- -- 2

10. Kerala 7 -- -- 5

11. Madhya Pradesh # 31 30 6 7**

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12. Maharashtra # 16 44 24 3

13. Manipur 5 -- -- 1

14. Orissa # 21 46 14 13

15. Rajasthan # 5 44 11 1

16. Sikkim 4 -- -- --

17. Tamil Nadu$ 9 -- -- 6

18. Tripura * -- -- -- 1

19. Uttar Pradesh 1 1 -- 2**

20. Uttrakhand -- -- -- **

21. West Bengal $ 12 -- 1 3

22. A & N Island -- -- -- 5

23. Daman & Diu 1 -- -- --

Total 192 259 82 75

Source: Annual Report (2009-10) Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India.

* There are no ITDPs in Tripura.

** The PTGs for Bihar and Jharkhand, M.P. & Chattisgarh and U.P. & Uttarakhand are common.

# States having Scheduled Areas and Tribes Advisory Council (TACs).

$ States having only TACs.

Allocation of Amount:

(a) Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs):

For allocation of SCA to ITDPs/ ITDAs, the States are grouped

into two categories:

Category 'A': Consisting of States with substantial areas predominantly

inhabited by tribals such as Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan and Sikkim.

79

Category 'B': Consisting of States having a dispersed tribal population,

with some areas of tribal concentration, such as Assam, Bihar, Goa,

Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar

Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal.

The total outlay of SCA for ITDPs is allocated to the above two category

of States on the basis of tribal population of the States/ UTs included in

each group. The funds allocated to Category 'A' is then distributed to the

States on the basis of the following criteria: (a) 70 percent on the basis of

ST population in ITDP/ ITDA area, (b) 30 percent on the basis of

geographical area of ITDP/ ITDA. The funds allocated to the Category 'B'

States are then to be distributed to the States only on the basis of ST

population in the ITDPs.

(b) MADA Pockets, Clusters and Dispersed Tribals: 100 percent on

the basis of ST population in MADA pockets, Clusters and Dispersed

Tribals.

(c) Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTGs):

The distribution formula is as follows:

70 percent of the amount on numerical size of the Particularly Vulnerable

Tribal Groups. 30 percent of the amount according to number of PTGs in

the States/ UTs. About 70 percent of the SCA fund is spent on family

oriented schemes and only 30 percent on the infrastructure incidental to

such schemes. There is a thinking to change this proportion by assigning

80 percent of the SCA funds to infrastructure development and only 20

percent for individual/ family oriented schemes since individual/family

oriented schemes can be taken up under the schemes of the Ministry of

Rural development and also funded through the National Scheduled

80

Tribes Finance and Development Corporation. The Ministry of Tribal

Affairs has also found that there is no check or monitoring of the release

of SCA funds by the State Governments to the implementing agencies.

Moreover there is also unusual delay in the release of SCA funds by the

State Governments to the implementing agencies. Some states have also

not opened separate budget heads for showing the TSP funds.

Table 3.8.3

Funds Release under SCA to TSP (as on 31.12.2009)

S. No. Year Rs. (in lakhs)

1. 2002-03 49700.00

2. 2003-04 46130.00

3. 2004-05 49700.00

4. 2005-06 49701.00

5. 2006-07 59573.91

6. 2007-08 63179.81

7. 2008-09 63135.29

8. 2009-10 44966.545

Source: Annual Report (2009-10) Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India

3.9 Approaches for Tribal Development

There are mainly five approaches which have been employed so far

in the welfare of tribals in India23. The approaches are:

i. Political approach

ii. Administrative approach

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iii. Religious approach with special reference to missionary approach

iv. Voluntary agencies approach

v. Anthropological approach.

i. Political Approach

The political approach for the tribal welfare may be understood in

the context of the pre and post independence period. The colonial rule

created “excluded” and “partly excluded” areas and gave separate

political representation to the tribes. Nationalists opposed these measures

as part of diabolic conspiracy to a new separatism. After independence,

the constitution has given the tribals a number of safeguards by

considering them to be the weaker section of the population. In the first

instance a period of 10 years was given to achieve the goal, but as the

problem was too complicated to be solved through a single decade, it has

persisted through decades.

ii. Administrative Approach

The administrative approach is closely followed by the political

approach. The Government of India has vast administrative machinery for

tribal welfare. At the State level, the governor has been made responsible

and on his behalf the chief minister and welfare minister are in charge of

the special schemes to be implemented in the tribal areas. In some major

concentrated tribal areas, the State has an independent tribal welfare

ministry.

iii. Religious Approach

The religious has been attempted by different religious agencies

like Christian missionaries, the Ramakrishna mission, the Arya Samaj

and other local religious institutions which are engaged in the welfare

82

works for the tribals. The Christian missionaries have been active in tribal

India. For both types of work, spiritual and material, the missionaries did

realize the importance of understanding the tribal culture and language.

Missionary welfare activities have been viewed by different persons in

different ways.

iv. Voluntary Agencies Approach

Under the voluntary agencies approach social workers, social

welfare agencies, social movement agencies, social reformers, etc., are

working to uplift the weaker section of our society in their own ways.

Voluntary social service organizations have done considerable

humanitarian work in the tribal areas but their idealism and spirit of

service have not been matched by their understanding of tribal

organization, values and problems.

v. Anthropological Approach

Anthropologists believe in the ultimate integration of tribes into the

mainstream of national life. After independence, some anthropologists

came out with several papers and addresses, dealing with the importance

of applied anthropology in tribal welfare programmes. The various tribal

research institutes are engaged in conducting research on Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Besides, many university departments in

the country undertake research on them.

Whatever the approaches are being taken, it is important to

integrate the tribal people in the national mainstream. But the problem is

that national mainstream is very wide. Unfortunately the main purpose to

integrate these tribals with the mainstream is left aside since there are

innumerable problems that have emerged on account of their so called

83

integration in the national mainstream. The important problems identified

as the “Chaos of values” and “Counter Values” and the consequent

breakup of the social structure24.

3.10 Tribal Development under the Planned Era

The basic problem of the tribal people, as of the vast majority of

the non-tribal population is that of poverty. The problem of low standard

of living, starvation, malnutrition, illiteracy, disease, poor sanitary and

housing facilities etc., all are common to the tribal and a vast majority of

the non-tribal population. They have been subjected to exploitation for

centuries together by the non-tribals such as money-lenders, forest

contractors, traders, landlords, officials, and politicians. Compared with

the exploitation of the non-tribal rural poor, the exploitation of the tribals

is more monopolistic in nature. They continue to be subjected to this

exploitation because they do not generally move out of their immediate

environment in search of employment opportunities. This is due to lake of

awareness of such opportunities on the part of the tribals, their distrust of

an alien situation, and fear that outsiders will exploit them even more.

Also, centuries of isolation from the main civilization has kept the tribals

ignorant of modern institutions, scientific and technological

developments, and changing environment and has contributed to their

ignorance, illiteracy, primitive mode of living, and poor resource base of

their economy25.

Keeping all these considerations in view, the Government of India

initiated special schemes for the development of tribal areas to

supplement the benefits accruing from general programme of

development in different fields such as agriculture, cooperation,

communications, health, housing, etc26.

84

Immediately after the independence, it was recognized that certain

communities needed special attention for their protection and

development. The development programmes through Five Year Plans

have been the mainstay of our way to integrate the tribal into the

mainstream. With the onset of Five-Year Planning after independence, a

new era ushered in, particularly in the socio-economic development of

the weaker sections. The Planning Commission laid down the objectives

and strategies for tribal development from time to time. The following are

the account of the tribal welfare programmes in India during the various

plans.

The First Five Year Plan (1951-56):

The first five year plan emphasized upon economic and educational

development and had the priority areas of health, housing and

communication. In 1952, the novel programme: Community

Development Programme started with a view of all round development of

rural areas. The next year in 1953 another new programme: National

Extension Service (NES), under which NES blocks were set up in

different parts of the country27. First five year plan did not play any

specific and special attention towards the development of tribal areas,

because only certain piecemeal attempts such as educational schemes,

welfare schemes etc. were introduced28. The plan expenditure was

Rs.19.93 crore for the tribals, amounting to only one percent of the total

plan expenditure of the country then came the idea of Panchsheel, the

Nehruvian policy towards the tribals. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime

Minister of the independent India provided the vision towards a policy for

the downtrodden tribals. In his foreword to Elwin’s book A Philosophy

for NEFA in 1957, he writes29.

85

· People should be allowed to develop on the lines of their own genius

and nothing should be imposed upon them.

· Tribal rights on land and forest should be respected.

· Induction of too many outsiders into the tribal areas should be

avoided.

· There should be no over administration of tribal areas and work

should be done through their own institution as far as possible.

· The results should be judged not by the amount of money spent but

the quality of human character that is involved.

The above principles implied chiefly three goals – culture specific

and need based development programmes for tribals, participation of

people in both planning and implementation and finally their

empowerment leading to self identity and self esteem.

The Second Five Year Plan (1956-61):

For the first time, an area specific special programme for tribals

were implemented with the creation of 43 Special Multi-Purpose Tribal

Blocks (SMPT blocks) in the second five year plan in 1956. Each Block

covered around 25,000 people of which two-thirds were tribals. The areas

of emphasis were education, health, agriculture, communication and

housing. A sum of Rs.27 lakh was sanctioned to each block for five-

years30.

The Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966):

In the third five year plan, the SMPT blocks were renamed as

Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs) and number of such blocks went up

to 489. The priority areas in the third plan almost remained the same as

before economic upliftment, education, health, housing and

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communication. The allocation was Rs.50.53 crore for tribal development

constituting a meager 0.60 percent of the total plan outlay.

Three Annual Plans (1966-69)

From 1966 to1969, three annual plans were implemented, during

which Rs. 32.32 crore was the plan allocation for tribal development of

total outlay. The Shilu Ao Committee that submitted its report in 1969

was critical towards the programmes and pointed out that the programmes

hardly benefited the tribals, their land disputes were not settled, funds

allocated to them was diverted elsewhere and the actual benefits went to

the advanced tribals only. The committee criticized the state governments

for not ensuring that the benefits reach the tribals.

The Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74):

On the eve of the commencement of fourth five year plan, 504

Tribal Development Blocks had come into existence for the betterment of

the tribals and intensive development areas with large concentration

covering 43 percent of tribal populations. The fourth plan allocation for

tribal development was Rs. 75 crore constituting only 0.50 percent of the

total plans outlay.

The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79):

A boom for tribal development came in the fifth plan, which

provided a sub-plan for the tribes. Popularly known as Tribal Sub-Plan

(TSP), it had many components like ITDP (Integrated Tribal

Development Project), Modified Area Development Approach (MADA)

Pockets, Clusters, Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) and Dispersed Tribal

Groups (DTGs). The funds for implementing these projects were to come

from sources: TSP of Central Government, TSP of State Government,

87

Special Central Assistance, and Institutional Finance from credit

institutions, banks, etc. The plan allocation was Rs. 1102 crore, which

was 3.01 percent of the total plan outlay.

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85):

The Sixth Plan continued the Sub-Plan approach of the Fifth Plan.

This was to be supplemented by target beneficiary approach with the

objective of narrowing the gap between the level of development of the

tribals and other developed communities and bringing about a qualitative

change in the life of a tribal community31. The broad objectives of the

Sixth Plan were:

· A progressive reduction in the incidents of poverty and unemployment.

· Improving the quality of life through minimum needs programme.

· A reduction in inequalities of income and wealth.

· Infrastructure development for further exploitation of potential of the

tribal region.

It was noticed that certain pockets of tribal concentration outside

the tribal sub-plan area were still left out of the tribal sub-plan strategy.

Therefore, it was decided during the Sixth Plan that pockets having a

minimum of 10,000 tribal populations of which at least 50 percent are

Scheduled Tribes, should be carved for intensive integrated development

and Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) under the TSP. A

definite target of 50 percent of the tribal families to cross the poverty line

was adopted during the Sixth Plan for the first time. The coverage of

tribal population during this plan reached 75 percent as against 65 percent

in Fourth Plan. The Plan outlay went up to Rs. 5,355 crore, i.e. 5 percent

of total plan outlay.

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The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90):

In the seventh plan the emphasis was again economic and

educational development. At the national level, two institutions were

established: (i) Tribal Cooperative Marketing Federation (TRIFED) and

(ii) National SC and ST Finance and Development Cooperation (NSFDC)

in 1989. TRIFED was the apex body for marketing tribal produce, mainly

minor forest produces (MFP). The plan allocation in the Seventh Plan

was Rs. 5,988 crore constituting 8.51 percent of the total paln outlay.

The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97):

In this plan educational development was further emphasized. The

number of Ashram (residential) schools and scholarships were increased.

Regional languages were used as the medium of instructions at primary

level. Informal and adult education programmes were given priority. On

the economic front, more LAMPS (Large Area Multipurpose Cooperative

Societies) were opened up to meet the needs of forest resources, credit,

and marketing of MFP and supply of essential commodities. About six

lakh families were rehabilitated from shifting cultivation.

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-02):

In the ninth plan emphasis is laid on a total integrated effort for all-

round tribal development and massive efforts have been made for the

socio-economic development of tribal people by the Government through

organized economic planning. The plan aimed to empower STs by

creating an enabling environment conducive for them. This process

essentially encompassed three vital components viz. social

empowerment, economic empowerment and social justice.

89

It also focused on tribal empowerment through effective

implementation of PESA (Panchayat Raj Extension in Scheduled Areas)

in the Scheduled Areas and proper utilization of grants release under

Article 275 (i) of the Constitution for the development of scheduled

tribes, in general and raising the level of administration of the scheduled

areas32.

The ninth plan acknowledges the need for a National Tribal Policy,

and reiterates to formulate a comprehensive Tribal Policy with a special

focus on Primitive Tribal Groups and displaced tribes. The Plan allocated

Rs. 3174.13 crore for the development of the scheduled tribes of which

the actual expenditure tends to only Rs. 3091.32 crores to empower the

tribals as agents of socio-economic change and development and make

them the active partakers of the development process.

The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07):

In the tenth five year plan, the programmes for child and women

development, irrigation, measures to improve income of tribals from

forest produce and development of forest village were to receive financial

assistance and attention.

The Tenth Plan identified the priority group requiring the basic

needs and living in different geographical regions with varied socio-

economic conditions. Primary health care services in tribal areas are

extended by involving local NGOs. Indigenous medicine and the

traditional knowledge and method of healing are encouraged in attending

to the health needs of the tribes33.

90

The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12):

The eleventh plan will attempt a paradigm shift with respect to the

overall empowerment of the tribal people, keeping the issues related to

governance at the Centre. The operational imperatives of the Fifth

Schedule, TSP 1976, PESA 1996, RFRA 2006; the desirability of a tribal-

centric, tribal-participative and tribal-managed development process and

the need for a conscious departure from dependence on a largely under-

effective official delivery system will be kept in view during this shift34.

3.11 Tribals in the 21st Century

An Indian tribal in the 21st century ought not to be markedly

different from his predecessors in the 20th century. The problem of their

growth and development, their effects to find a place of equality and self

respect in the coming century will be shaped by their experiences in the

decades of the 21st century.

The present century has witnessed major development as far as

Indian tribals are concerned. It marks the end of the colonial system in

tribal regions well the tribal struggles and movements waged against the

intrusion by the outsiders on their land. The colonial rule was witness to

the rise of the tribals as a distinct ethnographic-anthropological and

administrative consideration. Under the Constitution of India, the tribal

are given rights like any other class of citizens, and they mix of measures

of protection and special benefits in terms of development programmes

formulated specially on them.

While the tribals have substantially improved their position, a vast

majority of them still lag behind their compatriots. With increase in

population, pressure on tribal resources has multiplied manifold. Their

91

rights in land, forest and other resources are being rapidly eroded. As a

result, tribal movements connected with all manner of issues have gained

momentum across the nation. As far as we can foresee in the 21st century,

the dialectical processes of protection and the erosion of resources and

identity will continue to work with greater ferocity35. Some important

issues regarding tribal development mentioned as:

i) The tribal population will grow at a pace higher than the

demographic growth rate of other categories of populations. Some

of the tribal groups, already identified as endangered groups, will

face extinction. A few of the smaller tribes such as the Great

Andamanese and Onges might cease to exist by the end of the 21st

century.

ii) The growth of population will accelerate the influx of populations

in tribal areas in spite of the agrarian laws to protect tribal land and

their rights.

iii) The environmental situation will worsen. With the rapid

degradation of forests, the tribals might lose further their rights in

forests.

iv) The exploitation of tribal people and their resources will increase

manifold. The threat to their resources continues with the increased

displacement of tribals from their lands in the name of

development.

v) The conflict between tribal and modern institution will intensify.

vi) The tribal economy will be further sucked into the market

economy.

vii) More and more tribals will be urbanized. Criminalization of tribals

will increase. The incidence of alcoholism will go up.

92

viii) There will be growing tension on gender issues in tribal society.

The movement towards assertion of rights of tribal women in land

will grow.

ix) The measure of protective discrimination need to be strengthened

further. Outlays on tribal welfare and development processes will

increasingly provide for self management of issues.

x) Inequalities in tribal society will multiply. Stratification will

sharpen. Polarization between the rich and the poor will grow.

xi) Tribal ethnicity will become stronger. Tribal movements based

mainly on issues of identity, protection of rights, participation in

power structure will intensify. Demand for tribal autonomy will

grow. Tribals’ right to manage their resources and tribal autonomy

may be conceded in many areas of Middle India and elsewhere.

xii) Tribal issues will be globalized.

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