chapter 3
TRANSCRIPT
Some real examples of operations
Formal operations:– If you wanted to wake up this morning to
call someone in New York at 10 am Eastern, what time would you have to wake up here in HI?
Concrete operations
16 9 18 8
15 11 13 10.5
Social Development, Chapter 3:Recent Theories• 1. Ethology• 2. Behavioral Genetics• 3. Ecological Theory (Bronfenbrenner)• 4. Vygotsky• 5. Social Information-Processing Theory
1. Ethology
Ethology– Study of evolutionary bases of behavior and
development– Assumes natural selection
Assumes that we have some preprogrammed behaviors, instincts and FAPs– E.g., infant cries
• Useful because it signals needs• When needs are met, infant survives and bonds are
formed
1. Ethology
Critical periods: – short time during which organism is
sensitive to environmental influences– e.g., first and second language acquisition
Sensitive periods:– Time that is optimal for developing a
certain capacity– E.g., attachment
2. Behavioral Genetics
Study of how genotype interacts with environment– Interested in variation among members of a
species
Genotype– Sets of genes
Phenotype– Observable characteristics
2. Behavioral Genetics
Emphasis on heritability– Amount of variation in a trait or a class of behavior
that is attributable to hereditary factors
2. Behavioral Genetics
Methods for estimating hereditary influences
1. Selective breeding– Tryon (1940): Maze-dull vs. maze-bright rats– Selectively mated
• Differences became progressively greater
2. Family studies• Kinship: twins, adoption
2. Behavioral Genetics
Methods for estimating contributions of genes and environment
1. Concordance rates: percentages of pairs of people in which both members display the trait
2. Gene influences (heritability)
H = (r identical - r fraternal) X 2
2. Behavioral Genetics
Example of heritability
H = (r identical - r fraternal) X 2
H (IQ) = (.86 - .60) X 2 = .52
So, much of IQ is attributable to environment.
2. Behavioral Genetics
Heritabililty
Estimates are always between .00 and +1.00
Heritability estimates apply to populations and NEVER to individuals.
2. Behavioral Genetics
Another example: Schizophrenia
concordance rate for identical twins = .46
fraternal = .14 This indicates that there is some genetic
basis. However, people inherit predispositions for
illnesses or disorders. Environment plays a big role.
2. Behavioral Genetics
Nonshared environmental influences NSE = 1 - r(identical twins reared together)
For IQ, NSE is 1 - .86 = .14, small
SHARED environmental influenceSE = 1 - (H + NSE)
For IQ, SE = 1- (.52 +.14) = .34, moderate
2. Behavioral Genetics
What other characteristics are heritable?– Introversion/extroversion – Empathic concern
What can heritability studies tell us?– Tells us about differences among individuals and
relationship to differences in genes– Impt. to remember that heritable traits can be
modified by the envt. – Heritable is NOT a synonym for inherited…
3. The ecological perspective
Bronfenbrenner Considers contexts of development and
their inter-influences– Ecological systems theory– Bioecological theory
Bronfenbrenner’s Model Microsystem
– Immediate settings and people Mesosystem
– Connections among microsystems Exosystem
– Social systems that influence children Macrosystem
– Larger context of culture Chronosystem
– Historical time; changes in environment that influence development
4. Lev Vygotsky
The sociocultural perspective1. Human dev. occurs a particular context
that influences it.
2. Personality and cognition evolve from social interactions.
• Culture provides tools, beliefs, values.• Cognition is inherently social
4. Lev Vygotsky
Key components:– Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• What a child can do with help today, he will be able to do by himself tomorrow.
– Scaffolding• Finding the ZPD
Research by Maynard (2002) indicates that children are good at scaffolding by the age of 8 years. Scaffolding begins around age 6.
4. Lev Vygotsky
Other aspects of Vygotsky’s theory Collaborative learning
– Novices participate in activities with the help of others
Private speech– Child uses language to guide activities– E.g., talking to self to help self do a task
5. Social Information Processing
Premise:– Humans are active processors of social
information who generate explanations for others’ behavior (causal attributions)
Attributions are made to internal or external causes
People question intentionality of behavior In individual psychology, interpretations are
often more important than what actually happened.
5. Social Information Processing
Inferring dispositional attributes Trait: stable over time and across situations
– E.g., friendliness, integrity, intelligence Even toddlers assume intentionality, but error
is thinking that most behavior is intentional– Deliberate acts vs. accidents
Young children’s understanding of trait stability