chapter 3: explaining crime. several theories attempt to explain criminal behavior some theories...
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Introduction to Criminal Justice
Chapter 3: Explaining Crime
Several theories attempt to explain criminal behavior
Some theories assume:◦ Crime is part of human nature◦ Crime is based on biological, psychological,
sociological, and/or economic aspects
Introduction
Theory: an assumption that attempts to explain why or how things are related to each other
Theory of crime attempts to explain why or how a certain thing is related to criminal behavior
Criminological Theory: the explanation of criminal behavior
Theory
Based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible for their actions
Criminal behavior is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action against the possible pain associated with it
Classical Theory
An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, Argued only justified rationale for laws and
punishments was the principle of utility. Believed basis of society, as well as origins
of punishments and right to punish, is the social contract
Classical Theory:Cesare Beccaria
Special or Specific Deterrence: the prevention of individuals from committing crime again by punishing them.
General Deterrence: the prevention of people in general or society at large from engaging in crime by punishing specific individuals and making examples of them
Deterrence
Believed best way to prevent or deter crime was to:◦ Enact laws that are clear, simple, and unbiased,
and that reflect consensus of the population◦ Educate the public◦ Eliminate the corruption from the administration
of justice◦ Reward virtue
Classical Theory:Cesare Beccaria
Main real-world drawbacks:◦ Not all offenders are alike◦ Similar crimes are not always as similar as they
might appear
Classical Theory:Cesare Beccaria
Classical theory, difficult to apply in practice, was modified in the early 1800s, and became known as neoclassical theory◦ Conceded that certain factors, such as insanity,
might inhibit the exercise of free will Introduced idea of:
◦ Premeditation as measure of degree of free will◦ Mitigating circumstances as legitimate grounds
for diminished responsibility
Neoclassical Theory
Grew out of positive philosophy and the logic and methodology of experimental science
Human beings were beginning to be understood not as free-willed, self-determining creatures, but rather as beings whose actions were determined by biological and cultural factors
Positivist Approaches to Explaining Crime
Human behavior is determined and not a matter of free will
Criminal are fundamentally different from noncriminals
Social scientists can be objective in their work
Crime is frequently caused by multiple factors
Society is based on consensus, not on a social contract
Positivist School of Thought:Key Assumptions
Account for too much crime; does not explain exceptions well
Ignore the process by which behaviors are made illegal
Assume that most people agree about most things most of the time
Believe that action is determined by causes independent of a person’s free will
Believe that social scientists can be objective in their work
Positivist School of Thought: Problems
Introduction to Criminal Justice
Chapter 3: Explaining Crime
Biological positivism Based on the belief that criminals a
physiologically different from noncriminals The cause of crime is biological inferiority
Biological Theories
Cesare Lombroso◦ Criminals are, by birth, a distinct type◦ Can be recognized by physical characteristics, or
stigmata◦ Physical stigmata do not cause crime; they only
indicate an individual who is predisposed to crime◦ Atavist
Criminal Anthopology
Extension of Lombroso’s criminal anthropology developed by Ernst Kretchmer and William Sheldon
Sheldon found delinquents were more mesomorphic than nondeliquents, and serious delinquents more mesomorphic than less severe delinquents
Body-Type Theory
Family trees Statistical comparisons Identical and fraternal twins Adopted children All have failed to prove criminality is
heredity because they cannot separate hereditary influences from environmental influences
Heredity Studies
Ongoing research has revealed numerous biological factors associated either directly or indirectly with criminal or delinquent behavior
The Limbic System Violent criminal behavior has also been
linked to disorders in other parts of the brain
Modern Biocriminology
Criminal behaviors have also been associated with hormone abnormalities, especially those involving:◦ Testosterone (a male sex hormone)◦ Progesterone and estrogen (female sex
hormones)
Endocrine Abnormalities
Biology or genetics gives an individual a predisposition to behave in a certain way
Whether a person actually behaves in that way and whether that behavior is defined as crime depend on environmental or social conditions
Biological Theories
Introduction to Criminal Justice
Chapter 3: Explaining Crime
Psychological causes of crime include:◦ Intelligence and crime◦ Psychoanalytic theories◦ Humanistic psychological theory
Psychological Theories
Associated with work of Sigmund Freud who believed people with unresolved deep-seated problems were psychopaths
Problems with idea that criminal are psychological “sick” include:◦ Bulk of research suggests no more disturbed than
rest of population◦ Many with psychological disturbances do not
commit crime◦ Much of theoretical structure is scientifically
untestable
Psychoanalytic Theories
Maslow believed that human beings are motivated by five basic levels of needs, and that people choose crime because they cannot (or will not) satisfy their needs legally
Halleck views crime as one of several adaptations to the helplessness caused by oppression
Humanistic Psychological Theory
Most of these theories of crime assume that a criminal’s behavior is determined by his/her social environment and reject the notion of the born criminal
Sociological Theories
Rejected idea that the world is simply the product of individual actions
Argued crime is a social fact Cause of crime is anomie Crime is functional for society and marks
the boundaries of morality Advocated containing crime within
reasonable boundaries
Emile Durkheim
1920s, attempt to uncover relationship between a neighborhood’s crime rate and its characteristics
Described American cities in ecological terms◦ Invasion◦ Domination◦ Succession
Theory of the Chicago School
Neighborhoods with high delinquency rates also experienced social disorganization, the condition in which◦ Usual control over delinquents are largely absent◦ Delinquent behavior is often approved of◦ Many opportunities for delinquent behavior◦ Little encouragement, training, or opportunity for
legitimate employment
Theory of the Chicago School
Robert Merton wrote about a major contradiction in the U.S. between cultural goals and social structure (anomie)
Argued that limited availability of legitimate institutionalized means to wealth puts a strain on people
Anomie or Strain Theory
People adapt through:◦ Conformity◦ Innovation◦ Ritualism◦ Retreatism◦ Rebellion
Anomie or Strain Theory
Cohen adapted Merton’s theory to explain gang delinquency
Cloward and Ohlin further argued that the type of adaptation made by juvenile gang members depends on the illegitimate opportunity structure available to them
Anomie or Strain Theory
Introduction to Criminal Justice
Chapter 3: Explaining Crime
Gabriel Tarde viewed all social phenomena as the product of imitation or modeling
Edwin Sutherland argued that criminal behavior was learning in his differential association theory
Learning Theories
A theory that explains criminal behavior and its prevention with the concepts of:◦ Positive reinforcement,◦ Negative reinforcement,◦ Extinction,◦ Punishment, and ◦ Modeling or imitation
Learning Theories
Key question is Why do people conform? Hirschi argued delinquency should be
expected if a juvenile is not properly socialized by establishing a strong bond to society, consisting of◦ Attachment◦ Commitment◦ Involvement◦ Belief
Social Control Theories
Focus is the criminalization process rather than the positivist concern with the peculiarities of the criminal
Argues that once a person commits a first criminal act, he/she may be labeled negatively as a criminal
Label may become a self-fulfilling prophecy
Labeling Theory
Assumes society is based primarily on conflict between competing interest groups
Criminal law and the CJ system are used to control subordinate groups
Crime is caused by relative powerlessness All behavior occurs because people act in
ways consistent with their social positions
Conflict Theory