95

CHAPTER 3

HIGHER EDUCATION IN KERALA

“Every student in our university/college should graduate to know

how to use the latest technologies for aiding their learning process.

universities should equip themselves with the tools like computer hardware,

software, working laboratory equipment and internet facilities and provide

an environment for the students to enhance their learning ability through

digital library”.

Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam.

Higher Education in Kerala : Pre-Independence Period

In the last chapter, the researcher has given a panoramic view of

the education in India and has thrown light up on the British India period

and the post independent scenario separately. The enrolment and budget

allocations were the focal points. Now this chapter attempts to have a

glimpse of educational development, particularly that of higher

education in Kerala.

As we see at the rest of the country or world, the earliest known

places of learning in Kerala were expressions of a religious culture. The

seats of education and knowledge of those times were

‘Kudippallikkoodams’ (elementary schools), Kalarys (physical and

military training schools), and Paadassalas (Vedic schools).

Kudippallikkoodams were of Budhist origin, Kalarys carried on a

Dravidian tradition and Paadassalas were Brahmanical.1

96

Higher education was imparted in separate institutions called

‘Saalais’in south Kerala, and ‘Subh Matts’ or Temple Universities in central

and north Kerala. These citadels of higher learning came in to existence in

the 9th century A.D under the patronage of the Crown. They were residential

institutions in the nature of Gurukulas.2

Education was imparted only to Namboodiri youths in these

institutions. ‘Subh Matts’ conducted examinations and awarded degrees.

Candidates were required to submit thesis or present themselves before

scholars and prove their proficiency in learning. Seminars were held

regularly in temple precincts and scholars from different places gathered and

exhibited their learned skill in debates and were granted formal recognition

or other honours and titles. Eminent scholars were awarded the degree of

‘Bhattathiri’. These centres of higher learning resembled the famous

universities in North India like ‘Nalanda’, and ‘Takshasila’, in many

aspects.3

Protestant missionaries from Europe who settled in various parts of

Travancore and Cochin in the early 19th century laid the foundation for

modern higher education in Kerala. The governments in these two states

were run by the British residents who encouraged missionary works and thus

gave impetus for the growth of English education and higher education. The

language english was accepted Lingua Franca. The missionaries opened

english schools in Nagercoil (now in Tamil Nadu), Quilon, Alleppey, and

Kottayam in the state of Travancore and in Ernakulam and Trichur in the

state of Cochin. These english schools were approved by the university of

Madras in due course and allowed them to present candidates for

matriculation. Later, the institutions were developed in to colleges affiliated

to the princely university of Madras.

97

In 1818, Rev. Mead founded the Nagercoil Seminary which was the

first institution in Travancore to start regular english education. This

institution grew in to a first grade college, later. In 1816, the Syrian

Catholics established a college at Kottayam. In 1834, H.H. Swathi Thirunal,

the then Maharaja of Travancore took the initiative to start an english school

at Trivandrum, which was later raised to a college, the Maharaja’s college,

affiliated to the university of Madras. This period witnessed a few efforts

made by the government to promote vernacular education. A few vernacular

schools were started with the objective of creating a cadre of clerks and

accountants for service in the various government departments of these

states.4

There were developments in the state of Malabar also. As in the cases

of Tavancore and Cochin, the english schools started in Malabar also were

grown up to colleges. The government started a high school – Brennen High

School – at Tellicherry in 1862, and the school was graduated to the famous

Brennen College by 1890. The Government Victoria School was started in

Palakkad in 1816, and the school developed in to the government Victoria

College by 1838. H.H. Sir, P.K. Manavikrama Maharaja Bahadur, Zamorin

of Calicut also started a school In 1877. This was converted in to the

Zamorin’s College by 18885.

The first university in the princely state of Travancore was the

university of Travancore which was established under an Act promulgated

by H.H. the Maharaja of Travancore, Sir Bala Rama Varma, in 1937. Three

committees had been set up earlier, in 1919, 1923, and 1932 to look in to the

feasibility of establishing a university in the State6. The Maharaja was the

first Chancellor and Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, Dewan of Travancore, the

vice-chancellor. Ten colleges which were formerly affiliated to the

98

university of Madras transferred their affiliation to the university of

Travancore. In the year 1939, the government entrusted the control of all the

government colleges thitherto managed by the Director of Public Instruction,

as an additional responsibility, to the university of Travancore. In 1949, after

the merger of the princely states of Cochin and Travancore, the colleges in

Cochin which were affiliated to the university of Madras also came under the

university of Travancore7.

Post Independence Period

At the dawn of freedom, Kerala state was still unborn. The region

was constituted of three separate entities, namely, the two princely states of

Travanvore and Cochin, and British Malabar, a remote district of former

Madras Province. Naturally there were three separates systems of education.

Travancore was, by far, more advanced in modern education. It had a

university of its own, the Travancore university, established in 1937, the 16th

university in India. There were a few well established arts and science

colleges both under the govt. ownership and private managements, over and

above the well established professional colleges at Thiruvananthapuram in

medicine, Engineering, law and education maintained by the state. In school

education also Travancore had progressed very much, with a large number of

reputed government english high schools besides a large number of private

schools maintained by Christian missionaries8.

‘Cochin state’ was well ahead in literacy and school education, but it

did not have any professional college before Independence. ‘Malabar’ was

far behind in both school and college education. There were two government

colleges at Palakkad and Thalasserry and two intermediate colleges at

99

Kozhikkode under private management. The colleges both in Cochin and

Malabar were affiliated to the university of Madras.

The arrival of freedom inspired different social groups to set up

schools and colleges to promote modern education. The Christian

community had already established a large number of schools and colleges,

particularly in Travancore and Cochin. On the eve of freedom the Nair

Service Society (NSS) set up colleges at Changasnasserry, Pandalom, and

Thiruvnanthapuram. The Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam

(SNDPYogam) set up their first college in 1948 at Kollam. The Muslims

also set up their first college in 1948 at Faroke near Kozhikkode. By the year

1950, the number of colleges in Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar rose to 54,

registering rapid growth9.

Kerala state was formed in 1956 (as a result of the re-organisation

of states on the basis of language), uniting Travancore-Cochin with Malabar.

The first election after the foundation of Kerala state installed a communist

government under the leadership of EMS Namboothirippad. Mr. Joseph

Mundasserry was the minister for education. His first effort was the

unification of higher education in the state. The Kerala University Act 1957

replaced the Travancore University Act 1937. Colleges in the whole of

Kerala came under its jurisdiction10. The distinguished economist and former

Finance Minister Dr. John Mathai became the Vice Chancellor of the

university.

The Kerala Education Act 1958 and the Kerala Education Rules 1959

were the brilliant pieces of legislation in the state.

The fifties were notable for the development in professional

education. The second medical college in the state was set up at Kozhikkode

100

in 1956. The REC,Kozhikkode, in the public sector and the TKM

engineering college, Kollam, in the private sector were set up after 1956.

TKM engineering college, Kollam, was the first private venture in

professional education in the State11.

In 1964 the state was facing a dilemma whether the 11th 12th year

classes should be in school or college. That was the year when the new

scheme of ten year SSLC reached its final year replacing the old eleven year

english school in Travancore. After a momentous debate in the senate of the

university of Kerala it was decided to introduce the two-year pre-university

course, as part of college education, preparatory to the three year degree

course. The three plus decades of existence of pre-degree as an integral part

of college has given rise to intractable problems for the process of transfer

the plus-two to schools.

During the sixties, 79 new colleges were started, the largest number in

any decade. During the fifties only 39 colleges were started; seventies 23 and

eighties 54. The record of the sixties is not yet broken, even though in 1994,

at one stroke, 72 colleges were sanctioned, including 27 B Ed colleges and a

few self-financing colleges for the first time12.

With the expansion of number of colleges, the need for more

universities was widely recognized. The Education Commission report

(1964-66) recognized as legitimate Kerala`s demand for a second university.

CH Mohammad Koya, who was minister for education, appointed a

committee under the chairmanship of Prof. Samuel Mathai to examine the

question of establishing more universities in Kerala. The committee

recommended the immediate establishment of Calicut university and

subsequently the Cochin university, on a different model.

101

The ‘University of Calicut’ was established in 1968 in a 600 acre

campus at Thenjippalam. The university made notable achievements in

academic fields such as syllabus reforms and examination reforms and

started new departments like drama, management, and life-science13.

The ‘Cochin University of Science and Technology’ also came in to

being with a new orientation as a federal university. It was set up in 1971

with head quarters at Cochin. Several new departments like marine

engineering, industrial fisheries and ship technology were established. An

expert committee recommended that the institution should be developed as a

full scale science and technology university. The university Act was suitably

amended. It is now well known as an advanced institution in science and

technology and has embarked up on new areas of research in collaboration

with foreign universities14.

The year 1971 bears witness to the birth of another remarkable

university, namely, the ‘Kerala Agricultural University’ at Thrissur. Already

there was a well developed agricultural college at Thiruvananthapuram and a

veterinary college at Thrissusr. These formed the nucleus of the university

together with agricultural research stations in different parts of the state, with

liberal support from the state government and Indian Council of Agricultural

Research (ICAR), the agricultural university made rapid progress and is

known as one of the best in India15. It has made remarkable contribution in

hybrid seed development in paddy, coconut, and banana, to give a few

examples.

While new universities were being established, trouble was brewing

in affiliated colleges. Students were agitating for uniform fees; teachers were

demanding payment of salary directly by the government; and managements

102

were insisting on grants to cover full deficit and absolute right to select

teachers. An agreement was reached between the government and the

management. Salaries were to be paid by the government; fees were to be

remitted to the treasury; and the staff to be selected by a committee in which

management retained the decisive voice. This is known as Direct Payment

Agreement and its provisions have become part of the statutes of

universities. It also provided for quotas for admission of students: 20 per

cent for the management; 20 per cent for SC/ST; 20 per cent or 10 per cent

for the community of the college; 40 per cent or 50 per cent on merit16.

The ‘Mahathma Gandhi university’ was established in 1983. Apart

from routine courses, the university embarked on a number of vocational and

semi professional courses such as Para medical courses, bio-technology,

nursing and so on.

In the nineties, two more universities were started – the ‘Sree

Sankara Sanskrit university’ at Kalady, and the ‘Kannur university’ with

head quarters at Kannur.

A very important recent development is the establishment of the

‘Indian Institute of Management’ in a forty acre campus at Kozhikkode. This

is the first All India Institute in Kerala. Similarly, the recognition of the Sri

Chithira Medical Centre as a Deemed university is a great achievement

Education – A Continuous Process

Education is, in a logical approach, a life-long-continuous exercise. It

starts from the rudimentary stage at schools which leads one to the portals of

higher education without a break. Inevitably, therefore, the quality of higher

education depends certainly on the quality of school education. A ‘sound

103

bed-rock’ of schools is the sine-qua-non for a ‘stout edifice’ of higher

education. This is why our planners and educationists give emphasis and

importance to school education. The following tables provide a glimpse of

school education which gives and insight into the strong school educational

scenario of the state.

Table 3.1

Number of Schools in Kerala

Year Lower Primary

Schools

Upper Primary

Schools

High Schools Total

1960-61 6705 1932 895 9532

1965-66 6954 2447 1151 10552

3.71 26.66 28.60 10.70

1970-71 6895 2543 1384 10822

-0.85 3.92 20.24 2.53

1975-76 6975 2606 1521 11102

1.16 2.48 9.89 2.59

1980-81 6861 2753 1976 11590

1.63 5.64 29.91 4.39

1985-86 6845 2870 2429 12144

-0.23 4.25 22.92 4.78

1990-91 6767 2915 2430 12112

-1.14 1.57 0.04 -0.26

1995-96 6728 2964 2581 12273

-0.58 1.68 6.21 1.33

1999-2000 6748 2966 2596 12310

0.29 0.06 0.58 0.30

2004-05 6827 3042 278 12650

104

1.17 2.56 7.13 2.76

Note: Figures in italics are percentage growth rate.

Sources: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977.

DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001.

SPB, 2006, Economic Review 2005.

105

Table 3.2

Number of Schools in Kerala (Government – Private)

Year

Lower Primary Schools Upper Primary Schools High Schools

Gov

ernm

ent

Priv

ate

Tot

al

Gov

ernm

ent

Priv

ate

Tot

al

Gov

ernm

ent

Priv

ate

Tot

al

1960-

61

2719 3987 6705 530 1402 1932 244 651 895

- - - - - - - - -

1970-

71

2804 4091 6895 809 1734 2543 442 942 1384

3.13 2.61 2.83 52.64 23.68 31.62 81.15 44.70 54.64

1980-

81

2712 4149 6861 867 1886 2753 789 1187 1976

-3.28 1.42 -0.49 7.17 8.76 8.26 78.51 26.00 42.77

1990-

2000

2552 4196 6748 959 2007 2966 979 1617 2596

-0.51 -0.14 -0.28 -0.10 2.66 1.75 4.04 8.60 6.83

2004-

05

2548 4279 6827 954 2088 3042 995 1786 2781

-0.16 1.98 1.17 -0.52 4.03 2.56 1.63 10.45 7.13

106

Note: Figures in italics are growth rate in percentage

Source: BES 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977

DES 2001, Statistics for Planning 1977

SPB 2006, Economic Review 2005

As per the above there are approximately 6827 LP schools, 3042 UP

schools and 2781 high schools in Kerala, at present for a population of

around 3.5 crores of people. The density of schools in Kerala is 2.7 times

more than that of the national average. The following table explains the

standard-wise strength of students in schools in Kerala.

107

Table 3.3

Standard Wise Strength of Students in Schools in Kerala

Standard 1957-58 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1999-2000 2003-04

I 601223 613389 800470 631479 601030 443027 441325

21.67 18.78 16.54 11.27 10.18 8.44 9.02

II 482437 518133 715429 662039 615381 482715 469200

17.38 15.90 14.80 11.81 10.43 9.19 9.58

III 415686 478601 668931 645954 619302 489810 459904

14.98 14.65 13.82 11.53 10.49 9.33 9.39

IV 352372 422107 623723 655331 636690 516774 457336

12.70 12.93 12.90 11.70 10.80 9.84 9.34

V 292327 358659 552163 603129 660062 551847 477109

10.53 11.00 11.41 10.76 11.18 10.51 9.75

VI 192218 279356 414988 552573 640029 559740 492861

6.93 8.55 8.57 9.86 10.84 10.66 10.07

VII 159581 262592 338712 538684 629715 593415 532572

5.75 8.04 7.00 9.61 10.67 11.30 10.90

VIII 130281 153315 308697 495738 578890 592438 545836

4.70 4.69 6.37 8.85 9.80 11.28 11.15

IX 84542 104380 259480 468461 525154 564756 546673

3.05 3.19 5.36 8.36 8.90 10.76 11.17

X 64209 74295 156547 349656 394848 454525 471189

2.31 2.27 3.23 6.24 6.70 8.66 9.63

Total 2774876 3264827 4839140 5603044 5901101 5249047 4894005

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Note: Figures in italics are percentage

108

Source: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977

DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2005, Economic Review 2004

There is a flaw-less running of school system in the state. The

conduct of examination, the announcement of results, the curricular and

extra curricular activities are in smooth course in the state. The following

table explains the growth in the number of students in schools in Kerala.

Table 3.4

Growth in the Number of Students in Schools in Kerala

Year

Students (in lakhs)

L.P. Schools U.P. Schools High Schools Total

1960-61 20.57 8.82 3.31 32.70

- - - -

1970-71 28.08 12.67 7.25 48

36.51 43.65 119.03 46.79

1980-81 25.94 16.94 13.14 56.03

-7.62 33.70 81.24 16.73

109

1990-91 24.72 19.30 14.99 59.01

-4.70 13.93 14.08 5.32

1999-2000 12.26 13.69 26.39 52.34

-50.40 -29.07 76.05 -11.30

2004-05 18.47 14.70 15.25 48.42

50.65 7.38 -42.21 7.50

Note: Figures in italics are percentage growth rate

Source: DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2006, Economic Review 2005

The majority of school teachers in Kerala are ladies. The male-female

ratio of high school teachers in Kerala is approximately 67-33. At the UP

level it is around 86-14 and at the LP level it is almost 97-3. However,

professionally the lady teachers are commendable for school education.

Table 3.5

Number of School Teachers in Kerala

Year L.P. Schools U.P. Schools High Schools Total

1971 50319 43033 48953 142305

110

- - - -

1981 51975 49971 72357 174303

3.29 16.12 47.81 22.48

1991 49600 50476 89888 189964

-4.57 1.01 24.23 8.98

2001 42895 47710 90645 181250

-13.52 -5.48 0.84 -4.59

2004-05 61490 53492 59776 174758

43.35 12.12 -34.05 -3.58

Note: Figures in italics are growth rate in percentage

Source: SPB 2001, Economic Review 2000

SPB 2003, Economic Review 2002

SPB 2006, Economic Review 2005

There is a sound school system in Kerala and it is the main reason of

the high literacy rate of the state. There has been a sporadic growth of

English medium schools in Kerala – from kindergarten plus-two level –

111

during the last two decades. The conduct of SSLC examination and the

timely publication of the results in Kerala have acclaimed the appreciation in

the national level. The following table expresses the SSLC results in various

decades in Kerala.

Table 3.6

SSLC Results in Various Decades in Kerala

Year Month

Number of

students

appeared

Number of

students

passed

Percentage of

pass

1981 March 264783 91178 34.4

September 51702 12386 24

1991 March 529052 269911 51.02

September 4485 1314 29.30

2001 - 455812 2558554 56.22

Source: DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2006, Economic Review 2005

112

Table 3.7

Number of Higher Secondary Schools

Category 2000 2005

government 417 702

Aided 506 523

Unaided 8 431

Total 931 1656

Source: SPB 2006, Economic Review 2005

Kerala has been ranked the most developed state at all levels of

schooling except higher secondary. For higher secondary Haryana comes

first, followed by Kerala. Altogether Kerala has an excellent school system

and it is the beckon of life which leads the state to be number one in literacy

in the nation.

The Present Scenario – Higher Education

Kerala has now seven universities and three deemed universities as is

shown in the following table.

113

Table 3.8

Affiliating universities, technical universities and deemed universities in

Kerala 2007

Affiliating universities

(4)

Others

(3)

Deemed university

(3)

University of Kerala Cochin university of

Science and

Technology, Kochi

National Institute of

Technology (former

REC), Kozhikode

University of Calicut Sree Sankaracharya

university of Sanskrit,

Kalady, Thrissur

Sree Chithira Medical

Centre,

Thiruvananthapuram

Mahatma Gandhi

university, Kottayam

Kerala Agricultural

university, Thrissur

Kerala Kalamandalam,

Cheruthuruthy, Thrissur

Kannur university,

Kannur

There are 344 arts / science / commerce colleges affiliated to four

universities, namely, Kerala, Calicut, Mahathma Gandhi, and Kannur

universities. Out of these, 38 are government colleges, 148 are private aided

colleges, and 158 are private un-aided colleges17.

Colleges Affiliated to Various Universities in Kerala – 2007

There are 344 arts / science / commerce colleges affiliated to four

universities namely, Kerala, Calicut, Mahatma Gandhi and Kannur

universities as is depicted in the following table.

114

Table 3.9

Higher Educational Institutions in Kerala - 2007

Nomenclature Universit

y of

Kerala

Universit

y of

Calicut

Mahatma

Gandhi

universit

y

Kannur

universit

y

Tota

l

Arts/Science/Commerce 62 115 121 46 344

Engineering/Technolog

y

04 23 22 09 58

Medical Colleges 02 05 03 01 11

Ayurveda Colleges 01 04 03 02 10

Homoeopathic Colleges 01 01 02 -- 04

Dental Colleges -- 02 04 01 07

Law Colleges 02 02 01 -- 05

Nursing Colleges -- 16 27 04 47

Pharmacy Colleges -- 08 04 03 15

Training Colleges 10 53 49 03 115

Fine Arts’ Colleges 02 01 -- -- 03

Music Colleges 01 -- -- -- 01

Music and Fine Arts -- -- 01 -- 01

Physical education 01 -- -- -- 01

Oriental Title Colleges -- 23 -- 04 27

IHRD Centres -- 07 -- -- 07

Hotel Management -- 02 -- -- 02

Total 86 262 237 73 658

Source: Official Web Sites of universities in Kerala, up-dated 2007.

115

Table 3.10

Number of Arts& Science Colleges (Government and Private) in

1957-58 to 2005-06 - Kerala

Year Government Private Total

Aided Unaided

1957-58 - N.S.A - 41

1960-61 - N.S.A - 46

1965-66 - N.S.A - 100

1970-71 12 105 - 117

1975-76 20 108 - 128

1980-81 30 104 - 134

1985-86 40 132 - 172

1990-91 40 132 - 172

1995-96 36 133 - 169

1999-2000 38 148 - 186

2005 39 150 167 356

Note: N.S.A- Not Separately Available

Source: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977

DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2006, Economic Review 2005

116

Table 3.11

Number of Teachers in Arts & Science Colleges

Year Government Private Total

1957-58 N.S.A - 1569

1960-61 N.S.A - 2170

1965-66 N.S.A - 4553

1970-71 850 5441 6291

1975-76 1253 6660 7913

1978-79 1405 6985 8390

1990-91 2376 11481 13857

1995-96 2284 10906 13190

1999-2000 1981 9668 11649

2004-05 - - 10468

Source: BES, 1977 Statistics for Planning 1977

DES, 1980, Statistics for Planning 1980

DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2006, Economic review 2005

117

Table 3.12

Strength of Students in Arts & Science Colleges

Year Pre-degree Degree Post Graduation

1990-91 210643 129735 10452

107.44 120.66 -93.66

1999-2000 130651 144885 14585

-37.97 11.68 39.54

2005 - 158744 18226

9.56 24.96

Note: Figures in italics are growth rate in percentage

Source: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977

DES, 2001, Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2006, Economic Review 2005

There has been a very insignificant growth of professional and

technical educational institutions in Kerala during the fifties, sixties,

seventies and eighties. The reason was that these educations were strictly put

under the government control. The following table shows the skinny growth

of professional educational institutions in Kerala during 1950-1980.

118

Table 3.13

Number of Colleges for Professional Education

Colleges 1957-58 1960-61 1970-71 1978-79

Engineering 1 4 6 6

Medicine 2 2 4 4

Agriculture 1 1 1 1

Veterinary 1 1 1 1

Law 2 2 4 4

Teachers

Training

12 18 19 19

Ayurveda 1 1 2 5

Horticultural - - - 1

Source: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977.

DES, 1980, Statistics for Planning 1980

As there had been only a handful professional colleges in Kerala the

enrolment was very poor. The students in Kerala were going outside of the

state to join such courses, causing a high erosion of money and energy to the

Kerala students. The very thin enrolment in the available professional

colleges in Kerala during the period 1950-1980 is explained in the following

table.

119

Table 3.14

Number of Scholars in Colleges for Professional Education

Colleges 1957-58 1960-61 1970-71 1977-78

Law 368 437 1325 2021

Training 1362 2009 1772 2283

Engineering 388 1553 1877 4201

Medical 812* 1696* 2347 3663

Ayurveda - - 281 680

Agricultural 200 215 - 418

Veterinary 215 395 235 244

Horticultural - - - 189

* Including Ayurveda

Source: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning 1977.

DES, 1980, Statistics for Planning 1980

There has been a high growth in the number of engineering

colleges, medical colleges, allopathy, dental, ayurveda, homeopathic

colleges and professional colleges like pharmacy and nursing colleges in

Kerala since the beginning of new century. There are almost 84 engineering

colleges in Kerala now. As many as 13 medical colleges are also serving the

state now. The following table is a ready-reckoner of professional

educational institutions in Kerala between 2000-2005.

120

Table 3.15

Number of Professional Educational Institutions

Category

Courses

2000 2005

Number of

Institutions

Number

of seats

(per

year)

Number of

Institutions

Number

of seats

(per

year)

Engineering

Colleges

- 30 8543 84 23196

Polytechnics - 47 9630 59 10875

Allopathy M.B.B.S. 6 800 13 1500

Dental B.D.S 2 80 9 470

Ayurveda B.A.M.S 5 170 13 650

Homoeopathy B.H.M.S 4 200 5 250

Nursing

Colleges

B.Sc. 3 150 45 2280

Pharmacy

Colleges

B.Pharm. 1 28 20 1120

Source: S.P.B. 2006, Economic Review 2005

121

Table 3.16

Number of Medical Institutions (Allopathy)

1957-

58

1960-

61

1970-

71

1980-

81

1990-

91

1999-

2000

2004-

05

Hospitals 68 67 112 145 140 143 132

- -1.47 67.16 29.46 -3.45 2.14 -7.69

P.H.Centres&

MCH Centres

68 82 163 173 908 944 931

- 20.59 98.78 6.13 424.85 3.96 -1.38

Dispensaires 182* 197* 261* 625 51 53 59

- 8.24 32.48 139.46 -91.84 3.92 11.32

TB Clinics N.S.A - - 20 22 21 18

10.00 -4.54 -14.28

Grand in aid

Institutions

51 41 15 12 36 36 29

- -19.60 -63.41 -20.00 200.00 0.00 -19.44

Leprosy Centres - - - 6 15 15 18

150.00 0.00 20.00

Community 54 105 115

Health Centres - - - - - 94.44 9.52

Others - 10 2 - - - -

- - -80.00 - - - -

Total 369 397 553 981 1226 1317 1302

- 7.59 39.29 77.39 24.97 7.42 -1.14

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Note: Figures in italics are growth rate in percentage

* including TB Centres and Clinics

Source: BES, 1977, Statistics for Planning, 1977

DES, 2001 Statistics for Planning 2001

SPB, 2006, Economic Review 2005

Table 3.17

Enrolment of students in Arts/Science/Commerce Colleges in Kerala

(university-wise) For Degree and Post Graduate Courses – 2005

(Excluding students in un-aided colleges and private registration)

Name of University Degree Post

Graduate

Total

University of Kerala 49005 5301 54306

University of Calicut 43538 3696 47234

Mahatma Gandhi university 39094 4677 43771

Kannur university 12562 1094 13656

Total 144199 14768 158967

Source: Planning Board Data, government of Kerala, 2005.

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Tabel 3.18

Enrolment of students in Arts and Science Colleges

For Degree and Post-Graduate Courses

(Excluding students in un-aided colleges and Private Registration) 2005

Sl. No. Dgree/ P.G Boys Girls Total

1. B.A 22914 38239 61153

2. B.Sc 22733 38206 60939

3. B.Com 10856 11251 22107

4. M.A 2306 4358 6664

5. M.Sc 1597 4315 5912

6. M.Com 968 1224 2192

Total 61374 97593 158967

Source: Planning Board Data, government of Kerala, 2005.

Of the total students, girls constitute 61.4 per cent . Similarly, out of

the total 158967 students, 1.44 lakhs (90.6 per cent ) are in degree courses

and 0.15 lakhs (9.4 per cent ) are in P.G courses. Girls form 62.5 per cent

for B.A courses, 62.7 per cent for B.Sc. courses and 50.9 per cent for

B.Com courses. In other wards, in all the degree courses, there are more girls

than boys18. There are 14768 students for P.G courses, out of them 9897 (67

per cent ) are girls. Similarly, out of the total students, 6664 (45.12 per cent )

are for M.A courses, 5912 (40.03 per cent ) are for M.Sc courses, and 2192

(14.85 per cent ) are for M.Com courses19.

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Postgraduate Education and Research

There are 140 post graduate colleges Kerala (20 government

colleges and 120 private colleges). There are 38 post graduate departments in

Kerala university, 25 in Calicut University, 22in MG university, 16 in

Kannur university, and 27 in CUSAT20. Besides these, there are postgraduate

courses in medical, engineering, and agricultural colleges. Research is an

essential component of post graduate education. In Kerala, it is mainly

concentrated on Ph.D programmes.

Agencies Promoting Research

Many agencies such as the UGC, All India Council for Technical

Education (AICTE), Department of Science and Technology (DST),

Department of Environment (DoE), Indian Council of Social Science

Research (ICSSR), and Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are

progressively promoting research in the state21.

Autonomous Institutions22

There are a few institutes that provide good facilities for research,

and perform far better than university centres, viz.:

Centre for Development Studies (CDS)

Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS)

Centre for Water Resources Department and Management (CWRDM)

Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI)

Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Centre (TBGRI).

These agencies are dependent on the state government for funding.

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Other important Research and Development Departments in Kerala23

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI)

Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI)

Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT)

Central Coir Research Institute (CCRI)

Rubber Research Institute (RRI)

Regional Research Laboratory (RRL)

Oral Coaching Centres for Research and Development in Kerala24

UC College, Aluva

St. Joseph’s College, Kozhikode

St. Albert’s College, Ernakulam

St. Thomas College, Palai

National College, Manacaud, Thiruvananthapuram

Farook College, Feroke

S.B College, Changanasserry.

S.H. College, Ernakulam

Fatima Mata National College, Kollam

St. Thomas College, Thrissur.

Research Centres for Fine Arts and Applied Arts in Kerala25

College of Fine Arts, Thiruvanathapuram

R.L.V. College of Fine Arts, Thripoonithura

Fine Arts College, Thrissur

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Ravi Varma Institute of Fine Arts, Mavelikkara.

Private Registration

There are 78734 private registrations in the three universities

(Kerala, Calicut, and MG), during 2004-05. Out of the total 78734

students, 64827 students (82 per cent ) are for degree courses and

13907 (18 per cent ) are for P.G courses. Further, of the total 64827

students for degree courses 25961 (40 per cent ) are in B.A courses

and 38866 (60 per cent ) in B.Com courses. Out of the total 13907

students for PG courses, 7411 (53.3 per cent ) are in MA courses,

1020 (7.3 per cent ) are in M.Sc courses, and 5476 (39.4 per cent ) are

in M.Com courses26.

Teachers:

Teachers in arts and science colleges numbered 10458 in 2005. Of

these teachers 3723 (36 per cent ) are in the colleges affiliated to M.G

university, 3169 (30 per cent ) are to the university of Kerala, 3347 (32 per

cent ) and 209 (2 per cent approximately), are to the university of Calicut and

the Kannur university, respectively27

Features of Higher Education in Kerala

The state spends 27 per cent of its total budget on education, the

third largest in India after Delhi and West Bengal28. One gracious feature of

Kerala education system is its accessibility to women. At the school stage,

girls constitute 49 per cent of the total enrollment, at the plus-two stage they

are 51.33 per cent and at the degree stage they are 456 per cent . The All

India average for women students’ presence in colleges is only 33.32 per

cent.29

Though the physical growth of higher education edifice is fairly

satisfactory, it does not produce the desired qualitative changes in the

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youths. In quantitative expansion, the situation in Kerala, more or less,

corresponds to the national scenario. When the state was formed in 1956,

there was only one university, while today we have seven. About the

quality side of higher education, the situation is not satisfactory. The

reason was that the affiliation structure was basically colonial in

orientation and was not suitable either to promote the autonomy, creative

growth of the teachers and the students or to serve the developmental

requirement of a free nation. Though some cosmetic changes were

brought about the recommendations of competent educational

commissions, the colonial matrix of the affiliation system self-

perpetuated itself 30.

The Emerging Issues in Higher Education in Kerala

Sources of Fund for higher education in Kerala

The following table shows the sources of fund for higher education in

Kerala. The composition of the sources are fees, non-government and

contract receipts, grants, current use gifts, income from endowments, and

other other receipts.

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Table 3.19

Composition of sources of fund for higher education in Kerala

Sources Percentage ( per cent )

Fees

Non-government and Contract Receipts

Grants

Current Use Gifts

Income from Endowments

Other Receipts

20

05

18

06

21

30

Total 100

Source: Planning Board Data, government of Kerala, 2005.

“The rate of access to higher education in the state of Kerala is

approximately 17 per cent ”31 The overall Gross National Enrolment Ratio

(GNER) is about 11 per cent32. The ratio of the state is more by 6 per cent of

the national ratio and it is nothing to be highlighted since the state is the

most literate in the nation.

The following table shows the accessibility to higher education in

some selected countries:

Access to Higher Education

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Table 3.20

Accessibility to higher education – country-wise - 2000

(17 to 23 Age Group)

Sl.No. Countries per cent Year

1 India 06.90 2000

2 The USA 80.90 2000

3 The UK 52.30 2000

4 Australia 79.80 2000

5 New Zealand 62.60 2000

Source: World Education Report, UNESCO, 2000.

Usually we talk about the quantity as well as quality of a product or a

service, together. They are both complimentary and supplementary, and both

are the two sides of a coin. The quantity or the size of enrolment in higher

education in Kerala, compared to its population, is very poor and

unsatisfactory. Even though it is little higher than the national average, it is

pathetic and shameful for Kerala especially being the most literate state in

the union. A satisfactory minimum-most level for Kerala, according to

academics and educationists, is 25 per cent.

Women’s Education in Kerala

Kerala leads the other states of India in women’s education. Female

literacy rate, according to 2001 census is 87.86 per cent . There are 1058

females per 1000 males in Kerala33. Women in Kerala occupy high positions

in all fields of public activity – educational, judicial, medical, and

engineering professions. The Malayalee women have an intense social sense,

civic and national consciousness. She uses her freedom judicially and in the

spirit of being an equal partner with man. Her role as wife and mother are

performed well. Education has sharpened her intellect, widened her outlook,

and turned her social and civic senses.

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The growth and development of women have direct impact on the

general well-being of a society. Sex-ratio is the most credible pointer

towards the status of women in any society. Kerala has a unique position

with regard to sex-ratio. Over the last one hundred years, females have been

outnumbering males consistently.

For the greater acceptability of the Indian graduates in the global

labour markets, standards of Indian higher education have to be

benchmarked with the global standards. This would give the Indians and

India a distinctive competitive edge and public policy needs to be geared to

this. For global recognition of its qualifications, India needs to work towards

the harmonization of its academic standards with internationally accepted

practices. In sum, the country requires forward-looking policies on higher

education. There is a need for investment both from public and private

sources in Indian higher education.

Adverse impact, if foreign universities are allowed

Foreign universities will do for higher education nothing that the

indigenous ones cannot do. The bill to this effect seems to be part of the

globalization policy on a reciprocal basis. It is also considered a way out of

the incapacity of the government to invest larger sums in higher education,

especially in research in science and technology.

The foreign universities, if allowed, will function independently or

with limited control under the government. While this will help in exchanges

between students and scientists, it will adversely impact education in the

state, which lays emphasis on education for all, without any discrimination.

Differences in matters of admissions, fee structure, reservation of seats for

various strata in society, and future prospects will creep in. Equal

opportunity for all sections, as contemplated in the constitution, will be

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difficult to maintain as the foreign universities will follow their own norms

over which society will have little control.

Beneficial to all; change is welcome

If the government wants to help the younger generation in the state,

it should throw open the education field to alien universities. Else, students

from Kerala will continue to move to other states and foreign countries for

quality education.

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Anthra Pradesh in south India are

progressing by leaps and bounds only because they sowed the seeds of free

education nearly three decades ago34.

The Union government’s approval for the entry of foreign

universities should be seen as an opportunity to transform the state’s higher

education sector.

Public commitment to higher education in Kerala ends with fixation

of low fee for students. Public commitment also should ensure that the

education offered at the low fee is useful to the student. In-activism on the

part of all has prepared the ground for the successful entry of anyone who

offers higher education in its true spirit. Our public commitment should be

shown by making it comparable with the world order and thus effectively

challenging the foreign players.

In the opinion of the researcher, what makes a foreign university a

threat is not better access to information and technology, but just their

attitude. This should be seen as an opportunity to change our attitude and rise

to the occasion by taking them on rather than building forts to resist them.

The old technique of “Protectionism” as a means of averting ‘competition’ to

remain ‘idle’ will not work in the virtual world by resisting physical entry.

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“Kerala occupies an enviable position as far as primary education is

concerned. But we cannot claim the same as far as higher education is

concerned. If we take the list of leading colleges in any discipline, be it in

management, engineering, or medicine, none of the institutions in the state

occupy a position in the first twenty. Obviously, the chances of students

hailing from Kerala getting into any prestigious organization in the country

or abroad are very slim”35.

The government does not have enough resources for massive

investment in specialized education. In the name of socialism, it should not

deny the opportunity to students to pursue higher education.

As a conclusion, the researcher is of the opinion that the universities

in the state should be asked to restructure some of their courses – the focus

will be on introducing new academic programmes on emerging fields.

Traditional courses will be strengthened. universities will try to attract

foreign students to join traditional courses here, if they prefer. The

government should direct universities to come up with new courses for

twinning programmes between educational institutions abroad. Exchange

programmes between universities in the state and foreign countries will be

promoted. A periodical review of curriculum in higher education will be

initiated. Private participation in higher education will be enhanced. Colleges

will be encouraged to attain autonomous status. Students will be given more

freedom to select courses of their choice. Above all, teachers should be

encouraged to design and offer courses.

Our Colleges are “Obsolete”

“American High Schools are obsolete”, opined Bill Gates, once. “By

obsolete, I do not just mean that our high schools are broken, flawed and

under-funded, by obsolete I mean that our high schools – even when they are

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working exactly as designed – cannot teach our kids what they need to know

today”, he added.

The words of Bill Gates are a best simile for our higher educational

system in Kerala. Barring a few, majority of our arts and science colleges in

the state are congenitally infirm and the proliferation of colleges turned

many of them just “academic slums” sans the very basic amenities and

infrastructural facilities. Training the workforce of tomorrow with these so-

called colleges of today is like trying to teach them today’s computers on a

50-year-old mainframe. Our colleges are designed decades ago to meet the

needs of another age. Until we design them to meet the needs of the 21st

century, we will keep limiting – even ruining – the lives of thousands of

Keralites every year.

The anachronistic academic practices, unsuited administrative

structure, and total breakdown in accountability are the features of higher

education today. The shift of qualified personnel away from the colleges and

universities to institutes and centres of advanced research has had a highly

dampening effect up on the ways in which under graduate and post graduate

teaching is perceived. Today college teaching is no longer the worthwhile

and prestigious profession. Many see it as an arena for the middle and lower

strata of the academic hierarchy, while the first rung is busy doing academic

research in the institutions and centres. There is a complete absence of

recognition of the fact that undergraduate education institutes the foundation

of the higher education system, and that therefore the best talents in

academics need to be drawn to the university system.

Thus, students who wish to study for a degree at the undergraduate

and post graduate levels do not have access to the best minds and the best

trained in their respective disciplines. Given low levels of teaching in

colleges and university departments, graduates and post graduates emerge

from the university system with astonishingly low levels of learning. It is

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from this pool that the present and the future teaching personnel in schools,

colleges, and universities would be drawn, thus completing the cycle of low

quality education.

Faculty Recruitment

More than 80 per cent of colleges in Kerala are publicly funded but

privately managed. These managements select teachers according to their

whims and fancies. “The private managements select teachers on communal

and pecuniary considerations. Even in the selection of university teachers,

merit takes the back seat”40

. “In a teaching-learning system, the teacher

should be a motivator and a facilitator. For playing these roles, one should

cherish high ideals…”41. The teacher must be meritorious, and fit for the post

and the name.

The majority of colleges in Kerala reflect the phenomenon of

‘Institutional Decay’. Increasing the distance between the professional

academics and colleges/universities is a common feature in Kerala. Our

higher educational institutions are languishing because qualified academics

no longer choose to work in them. Faculty Recruitment processes in

universities/colleges has become highly politicized and communalized

arenas. This process has naturally diminished the importance of merit in

faculty recruitment, and has contributed greatly to the erosion of quality in

teaching and research in our higher educational institutions.

Unless the government acknowledges teachers’ professionalism, the

high quality teaching would be a dream. Adequate literacy and numeracy to

the faculty is very essential. High value people must come in to the scene. In

all these times, only on the rarest of the rare occasions, that we see a right

person heading a centre of higher learning. Very often the superior minds

seem to be reluctant to occupy the seats, and therefore, the careerists,

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sycophants, and such other unsavory characters manage to claw in to the top

seats of our centres of higher learning.

A society with low regard for its teachers and a distorted perception

of the value of higher education is only playing with its future.

Performance Appraisal

One of the areas in our education system in Kerala where very little

progress has been made is that of teacher appraisal. Almost all other

organized sectors such as defense, police, administrative services, and

corporate sector have devised methods for the constant evaluation. There is a

great deal of reluctance on the part of teachers in the matter of appraisal, and

it may be from a feeling of insecurity. The AICTE has proposed a

Performance Appraisal and Development System (PADS) for

university/college teachers.

Self-appraisal has an important role to play to teachers’

development. Self-appraisal should be a continuous process. Identify

strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) by an

individual teacher. The National Policy of Education 1986 envisaged a

system of performance appraisal of college and university teachers to be

evolved in consultation with the teachers’ organizations. The UGC,

subsequently, set up a ‘task force’ involving the All India Federation of

university and College Teachers Organisations (AIFUCTO).

Higher Education Council

The much-debated Kerala state Higher Education Council has finally

taken shape, with K.N. Panikkar, renowned academic and historian (former

Vice-Chancellor of Sree Sankaracharya university of Sanskrit, Kalady,

Kerala) at its helm (Vice-Chairman). The Governor of Kerala is the ex-

officio Chairman, the Chief Minister the visitor. With the further

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proliferation of higher educational institutions and the steep decline of

quality, the need for planning and coordination has become more pressing

now. That is the context in which the council has been constituted.

The Council is conceived as a three-tier organaisation: Advisory

Council, Governing Council, and Executive Council. This is so because the

council is not an administrative body but an ideational body. “The Advisory

Council, which has some of the best minds of India from different fields and

people’s representatives, would bring to bear upon the deliberations both

social sensitivity and expertise. The Advisory Council would serve as a

source for generating ideas on higher education, both with national and

international perspectives. The deliberations in the Advisory Council would

give us an opportunity to test some of our ideas and policies with the

developments outside”.42

.

“The Governing Council is a collective of educational

administrators like vice-chancellors, teachers, students and the members of

the council. The Governing Council ensures a synergic relationship between

the council and the educational institutions. While the opinion of the

academic community is thus reflected in the Governing Council, the

presence of a representative of the council in the syndicates enable the

proper communication and co-ordination between the council and the

university bodies”.43

.

“The Executive Council is a small body, which would take care of

day-to-day matters of the Council. What is particularly important is that in

both the Governing and Executive Councils, the majority are drawn from the

academic field and not from the bureaucracy. As a result, the government

will be able to gain academic advice and opinion rather than the bureaucratic

one”44

.

137

The fear that the council would affect the autonomy the universities

is completely unfounded. On the contrary, “the council in clause 4(10)

undertakes the promotion of democratisation and academic autonomy of

universities and other institutions of higher learning”45

. The state Higher

Education Council aims at evolving a perspective plan for the development

of the higher education sector. From undertaking independent research for

the promotion of social justice and academic excellence to establishing

common facilities in higher education for the entire state, the council shall

chalk out a series of steps for restructuring the higher education.

The Council would perform the role of a planning board for ensuring

excellence in higher education. In a sense, it would be the ‘Educational

Planning Board’. It may provide academic input to the government,

universities, research institutions, and other centres of higher learning in the

state for implementing the policies on higher education. In a nutshell, the

council can perform the following roles:

The Council can undertake Human Resources Development planning for

the state and plan the growth and development of higher education. It can

evolve guidelines for international linkages between higher education

institutions in the state and abroad.

It will evolve programmes in order to promote the relevance of higher

education for the economic, social, and cultural development of the state.

It may evolve appropriate norms for regulating admissions to various

courses and for appointments to the posts of teacher-administrators in

universities and colleges, and other institutions of higher learning.

The Council will suggest changes in curriculum and syllabi in accordance

with the changing societal and academic requirements and facilitate the

138

development and publication of appropriate teaching materials, including

text-books, educational soft-ware and e-learning facilities.

It will organize short-term courses to train and up-date the knowledge

and skills of higher education teaching personnel, and educational

administrators.

The Council will advise the government on starting new courses,

colleges, and other higher educational institutions in the state.

The Council will advise the government for the release of funds/grants to

universities and colleges.

It will devise schemes for providing equitable opportunities, scholarships,

free ships and financial assistance to the needy students and monitor

implementation of SC/ST welfare programmes of the central and state

governments and other central and state-level funding agencies.

It will periodically review the statutes, ordinances, and regulations of

universities in the state and suggest appropriate changes for the

realization of the objectives of social justice and academic excellence in

education.

It will suggest the framework for the new statutes, ordinances or

regulations, for existing universities or other institutions of higher

learning.

The Council will conduct workshops and seminars with the objective of

facilitating the widest possible consultations with experts and

stakeholders before formulating the policies on higher education.

It will develop a synergic relationship among different agencies such as

the state government, universities, and other institutions of higher

139

learning in the state and the central government and regulatory bodies at

the national level.

The Council will coordinate and monitor various programmes being

promoted and undertaken by central and state governments and national-

level bodies such as the university Grants Commission, All India Council

for Technical Education, National Council for Teacher Education,

Medical Council of India, Bar Council of India, and other similar

statutory bodies and state-level institutions, including universities,

research institutions, colleges and other institutions of higher learning in

the country.

It will provide a forum for interaction among the academia, industries,

agriculture, and service sectors.

It will establish inter-linkages between research and learning processes.

It will promote extension activities in colleges, institutions and

universities and encourage their integration in to the curriculum so that

the teachers and students become sensitive to social issues.

The Council will look after the sports and cultural activities in higher

educational sector.

The Council will initiate steps for promoting democratization and

academic autonomy of universities and other institutions of higher

learning.

Academic Cost Recovery

The Academic Cost Recovery (ACR), in simple term “Fees”, must be

proportional to marketability. There should be “Relative Fee Structure”. The

Relative Fee Structure (RFS) means the subjects such as medicine,

engineering, bio-technology, IT, computer science and other socials

140

sciences, arts, and humanities. There is a need to search for methods of

mobilization of governmental and non-governmental sources of funds for

education. Though the principle of differential fee system in higher

education may be appealing, it may not help to raise enough resources to fill

the gap in resource requirements to meet the target. Therefore, there is a

strong case for raising the level of public expenditure on education. The

government’s resource base can be increased by improving the system of

taxation – taxes, tax structure, and tax collection.

The Report of the Committee on the National Common Minimum

Programme (NCMP) contains the scope for raising more tax and non-tax

revenues including the expansion of coverage of taxes and the scope for

raising revenues specifically from the rich. The improved administration and

information system can considerably raise revenues even within the existing

tax system. In this context, there is basic need to redefine the approach for

assessing the need for public funding of education in India. Apart from

accepting the right to education as a basic human right under the constitution

as interpreted by the highest judiciary in the country, the state has to

recognize unambiguously that in India education services today as a public

good at almost all levels, producing huge externalities. It has always been an

important instrument for leveling social status and for empowering the

weaker sections by providing occupational, social, and economic upward

mobility directly and by qualitatively improving the productivity of the

workforce. All in all, investment in education has become, the most crucial

component of investment in human development – in fact, the most credible

means at its disposal for the creation of the knowledge society.

Basically there is a need to change the approach to funding education.

It has to be recognized that it is a public good, a merit good, a basic human

right and an important instrument of socio-economic equity, besides being an

important investment in human development as a whole with intrinsic value

141

of its own. As the “Education Commission” warned, “In an age of science,

there can be no greater risk than a policy of drift and niggardliness in

education”.

Higher Education in Kerala – A Conceptual Shift

Privatisation, commoditisation of education, converting cultural and

educational goods and services in to commodities salable in the market and

so on are the usages hearing, now-a-days. Markets have been in existence in

every society from old times. It was used by society as a means to achieve

social objectives. Even when Adam Smith made markets the providential

order, “it was never the only criterion” for deciding economic activities, the

critiques argue. “The view that markets and the price signals they provide

should be accepted as the only criterion for all economic decisions and

actions became doctrine or ideology only much later”, they opined.

“The mechanical-materialistic view of the universe, characteristic of

the Newtonian age, which denied the organic and spiritual dimensions of

reality, has been the ideological framework of the modern market from the

beginning. But it is strange that they have become globally reaffirmed after

all the social sciences have proved the social dimension of human nature

beyond doubt, and after Einstein has brought about a revolution in the

philosophy of even the physical universe, displacing the mechanical by the

organic”, it is right when they argue against privatization of education,

particularly higher education.

The Constitution of India formulated by the founding fathers of

India’s nation-state, has clearly laid down both in its Preamble and in its

Directive Principles of State Policy, that politics and economics are

instruments of social objectives rather than the reverse. Justice, Liberty,

Equality, and Fraternity are the goals to which “We the People” commit

ourselves in establishing the nation-state. The state shall “make effective

142

provision for securing the right to work, to education” (Part IV, 41), provide

“free and compulsory education for all children”46

, and “promote with

special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of

the people”47

.

India couldn’t allot more than 3 per cent of its GDP to education

even though there have been much hue and cry over the subject. In such a

vast country like India, we cannot run all the higher educational institutions

in public sector. The shift from the concept of “the state’s role as providers

of equal opportunities to every citizen” to that of providing education, health,

and other social services “to those who can afford to pay”, is hence timely

and appropriate. The Kerala model of economic development on the

foundation of its model of social development by a new state strategy of

“transforming its expenditure on education and health from merely a social

welfare expenditure into an investment in human capital”, and that, in fact,

any other path of economic growth is full of risks for Kerala which has only

“limited material and fuel resources”. The underlying fact, here is that the

Kerala model is a participatory model wherein private sector is marching

ahead with the public sector. It is apparent that the Private sector is running

ahead of public sector without encroaching and intimidating the public sector

institutions.

The Harvard Economist, Amartya Sen in the book “India –

Economic Development and Social Opportunity”(Oxford 1995) which he co-

authored with Jean Dreze and published, presents the Kerala model as

something from which the union government and other Indian states like UP

and Bihar have to learn their lessons that without a basis in social

development like literacy, health, and women’s education, and social

security there can be no participatory economic expansion which is

necessary if economic growth has to serve the society. This is also the lesson

they draw from the successful strategies of economic development of China,

143

Korea, and other Asian Countries. It is also the lesson the study draws from

the failure of Brazilian strategy of economic growth.

Quality of Higher Education in Kerala.

The structure of higher education in Kerala is not different from

that of the country as a whole. This state has laid high emphasis on

quantitative expansion in terms of number of institutions, students and

teachers. Deterioration of standards is the main criticism leveled against

the system of higher education in Kerala. The report on higher education

by the state High Level Committee on Education and Employment

(HLCEE) has identified many causes for the falling of standards in the

sphere of higher education in the state. Among these, overcrowding in

the institutions of higher education owing to unrestricted admission has

been the root cause for the phenomenon.

The universities in Kerala have allowed ‘private registration’

whereby a large number of students undergo higher education in ‘Parallel

Colleges’ which lack even the barest minimum facilities for higher

education. A working paper of the Centre for Development Studies,

Thiruvananthapuram, has referred to the growth of the parallel colleges of

the state as “operating in the free market unaided by any form of government

direction and unfettered by any government control. The parallel colleges

have grown largely as a result of the prospect of making ‘quick profits’

owing to excessive demand for higher education”48.

The High Level Committee on Higher Education (HLC on HE)

considers the rationalization of fees the next important factor for the

mounting admissions to higher educational institutions. Compared to the

conditions of other states, Kerala has an abnormally low fee structure,

thereby attracting more students for higher education. This rush results in

overcrowding on higher education and ultimately dwindling of the standard.

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Prof. Syed Iqbal Hasnain, who has just laid down office (28th

October, 2006) as Vice-Chancellor of the university of Calicut, draws from

his experience to explain what is hampering the growth of universities and

colleges. In an interview allowed to The Hindu (National Daily), he

emphasized that “over-politicisation is stifling higher education in Kerala”49.

“The universities in Kerala find themselves incapable of meeting the soaring

demands of industry, whether it is in IT or any other burgeoning area. The

reason, according to Prof. Hasnain, is that over-politicisation permeates the

academic environs of the state. Principals and vice-chancellors do not get

time to concentrate on academic matters. Their time is consumed for

managing crises created by political foot-soldiers”, Dr.Hasnain added50

.

The former vice-chancellors, educational administrators, principals,

professors, and teachers, and academics and the well-wishers of our higher

education have volumes to tell about the evils and deficiencies of the higher

educational system in the country and the state. Almost all of them will have a

conscience on the “major issues afflicting our higher educational system”, as

pointed out by the eminent academic, educational administrator, former Vice-

Chancellor, and above all an expert on Indian constitution, Dr. M. V. Pylee.

They are “poor quality of teaching; indiscipline and poor motivation among

teachers, appointment of teachers on the basis of donations, instead of on the

basis of merit; politically-oriented trade unionism among teachers; politically-

oriented trade unionism among students; qualitatively poor examination and

evaluation systems; meagre infrastructural facilities in universities and colleges;

political interference in the autonomy of higher educational institutions;

appointment of vice-chancellors and other top functionaries of the universities

and colleges on the basis of political influences; political interference in the

constitution of different authorities of the universities and colleges; poor

leadership at the higher levels of administration both in colleges and

universities; and indifference on the part of parents, and the public”51.

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Higher Education in ‘Trishanku’ in Kerala

The higher education systems in many countries today are at the

crossroads. There is a gradual shift from education being a state

responsibility to its privatization. Many consider the public sector to be

efficient in the field of education and correspondingly the private sector as

efficient and therefore desirable. Nevertheless, the case for public

provisioning of education remains strong.

“ The university at its truest and best – are values that the market does

not honour : the belief in a community of scholars and not a confederacy of

self-seekers; in the idea of openness and not ownership; in the professor as a

pursuer of truth and not an entrepreneur; in the student as an acolyte whose

preferences are to be formed; not a consumer whose preferences are to be

satisfied”52.

The value of higher education was recognised in traditional societies

perhaps much more than in modern societies. Education and knowledge were

viewed as great wealth in themselves. Societies invested resources in

education voluntarily and gladly, and many a time without expecting any

direct economic return. Until the advent of 1970s, it had been so. It was held

that the benefits of education were vast and widespread, and in the long run,

government investments made in education could be recovered by society

through the increased productivity of the labour force and through

consequent higher tax receipts by the government, and hence there was no

need for any specific measures directly to recover the investments made in

education from students or from any non-governmental sources.

As Mishan (1969) observes, “[Higher] Education is an investment

and will pay for itself; and will increase the earnings of the beneficiary

students and the government will recover its costs through consequent higher

tax receipts”53.

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The immediate post-war period in Europe and the post-independence

period in developing countries were dominated by a welfare state philosophy

and a philosophy of social democratic consensus. It was strongly felt that

government could do almost everything for everybody. Following John

Maynard Keynes, the power of the state was recognised – planning,

provision, financing and other interventions by the state were favoured and

an extension of the traditional functions of the state was promoted.

Education had been one important sector in which the role of the state had

been recognised widely. The importance of public education was highlighted

earlier in Classical Political Economy also.

As Vaizey (1962, p 23) observed, “there is a long and honourable

tradition from Adam Smith to Alfred Marshall which assigns to publicly

supported education a major role not only in promoting social peace and

harmony, and self-improvement, but in the process of wealth-creation

itself”.54.

The advent of the 1970s heralded a continuing financial crisis in

education. The crisis was characterized by high rates of inflation, shrinking

public budgets for education along with increasing student numbers,

declining per student expenditures, extremely inadequate investment in the

quality of education severe distortions in inter-sectoral and intra-sectoral

allocation of resources, widening of inter-country and intra-country

inequalities in expenditure on education.

Since the beginning of the 1980s, modern neo-liberal economic

reform policies have been unveiled in several developing countries in the

form of stabilization and adjustment reform programmes, associated with the

International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. “Privatisation has become

the most significant agenda of the Bretton Wood Institutions” [Richardson

and Haralz 1995].55. The underlying philosophy of these policies is that any

aspect related to the public sector is inefficient, and any aspect related to the

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private sector is, ipso facto, efficient and desirable. All these led to the

eclipse of Keynesianism in the mid-1970s, and gradually and reluctantly

paved the way for the entry of market principles. The 1980s and 1990s

brought about a complete swing of pendulum in which social democratic

values and welfare state concerns were replaced by the free market

philosophy that stresses individual economic values and gains. Individual

freedom and choice are preferred to social (or public) choice. In the extreme

form of free market philosophy, there is no meaning to ‘Social Good’ and

‘Social Welfare’; there is no such thing as society or value to society that is

inseparable from individual gains”[Hayek1944]56.

The shift in development paradigm is taking place in Kerala. The

transition is from a development paradigm that was predominantly based on

Keynesianism to a ‘Neo-liberal’ paradigm. Markets, more clearly the private

sector, now hold the centre stage. It is argued increasingly now-a-days that it

is not the government, but the market that can do everything for everybody.

This philosophy is very ardent and strong in the higher educational sector in

Kerala.

Now with the unveiling of the economic reform policies, the role of

higher education is being re-interpreted and re-defined. The market-

promoting policies everywhere pose serious challenges in higher education.

New values, policies and practices replaced traditional and well-established

values, concepts and approaches. Social democratic visions are being

replaced by market-driven policies. ‘Marketisation’ has become the

buzzword. The role of the government is being re-invented. Their traditional

functions of production and dissemination of knowledge are under attack.

Public subsidization of higher education is being increasingly criticized.

Equity in higher education is no more cared for. The modern economic

policies or simply called the market reforms that aim at making higher

educational institutions responsive to market forces do not distinguish

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between education and any commercial product. This is the analytical make-

up and shape of higher education in Kerala, at present.

To be qualitative, the higher education must be in the public sector.

There are several arguments in favour of the role of the state in higher

education:

First, education is a public good; higher education at least a quasi-

public good, producing a wide variety and huge magnitude of externalities.

The externalities include improvement in health, reduction in population

growth, reduction in poverty, improvement in income distribution, reduction

in crime, rapid adoption of new technologies, strengthening of democracy,

ensuring of civil liberties, and even dynamic externalities [Schultz 1988]57;

[Romer , 1990]58 and ‘Technological Externalities’ [Behrman 1990]59 which

are necessary for technical progress and economic growth.

Second, education is also a “Merit Good’ [ Musgrave 1959]60. It is

a ‘merit good’, consumption of which needs to be promoted. People could be

ignorant of the benefits of education, or may not be appreciative of value of

education, or may not be able to foresee the implications of their investment

decisions in education, and may be unwilling to invest in education. But

governments are expected to have better information than individuals or

families, and should be wiser and more able to look in to the matter and

accordingly take decisions regarding investment in education, particularly

higher education.

Third, state provision of higher education is advocated on the

grounds of providing ‘equity of opportunity’. Ensuring equality of

opportunity in education to everyone irrespective of not only social, racial,

and cultural backgrounds, but also economic background is considered an

important function of the modern state”. It is necessary to provide free

education at all levels and also subsidise students’ living expenses in post-

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secondary schooling so as to guarantee ‘equality of educational opportunity’

[Blaug and Woodhall 1979, p 352]61.

Fourth, a strong argument accepted by many in support of ‘state

Funding’ of higher education is the existence of imperfections in capital

markets. Arrow(1993) observed: “Imperfections in capital market and

asymmetric information are possible justifications for the public

subsidization of higher education”62. In several developing countries

markets are ‘incomplete’ and credible markets do not exist. ‘education credit

markets’ are also incomplete [Kodde and Ritzen 1985]63. Imperfect capital

markets inhibit students from borrowing against the uncertain future returns

of higher education. Hence the need for state funding and subsidies in higher

education.

Fifth, education is a sector, which is subject to economies of scale,

or increasing returns to scale. Average costs of providing education declines

as enrolments increase. If a production process is characterized with

decreasing average cost condition, it may be more efficient for government

to operate. university systems, scientific equipments, libraries and the like

cannot be used on a small scale. Hence, it may be more efficient for

government to provide it [Colclough 1996]64. So government monopoly of

education, including higher education, is viewed desirable, compared to

allowing many providers in the field.

In fine, the debate between the two sides, state Vs. markets, or

familiarly known as liberal Vs. neo-liberal groups, is intensifying in the state

in the recent years. Whatever may be said, based on sound economic

reasoning, it is concluded that education, particularly higher education needs

active state funding, state subsidy, and state control. It is widely recognized

that any withdrawal of public funding, public subsidy or public control

would certainly make the system worse, more regressive.

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Current Trends Towards Marketisation

Despite the abundant knowledge on the Importance of the role of the

state, higher education system in Kerala is in transition. The economic

reform policies introduced in almost all developing countries during the last

quarter of the century required (a) a drastic cut in public expenditures across

the board, including higher education, and (b) promotion of markets in

higher education. In fact, these policies set the tone for drastic reforms in

higher education. Public expenditure on higher education in Kerala declined

considerably and the recovery of costs of higher education from the students

(in the form of high and even full of cost-equivalent fees) has been an

important strategy adopted in the state.

The lack of resources is the main reason cited for the growth of

private higher education in the state. Self financing courses being taught by

inexperienced guest faculties is the real and sound reason for the decline of

standard of our higher education. These private institutions are focusing on

short-term market considerations. Even universities began to transform

themselves in to ‘entrepreneurial universities and autonomy from the

government has become a buzzword.

To sum up, the emerging higher education system in Kerala is a

transformation of academic institutions in to a much liberalized ‘private-

motive-driven’ self-financing institutions caring no quality concepts. To

borrow Raines and Leathers(2003)65 the single most objective of such’

entrepreneurial universities’ and ‘commercial institutions’, seems to be

mobilization of more and more resources.

The “higher education bazaar” [Kirp 2003]66 is growing everywhere

in developed as well as developing countries with all its ugly faces. The

emerging private – moderate or highly private or predominantly private –

higher education systems are found to be creating serious problems in terms

151

of access, quality and equity in higher education. It is seemed that the private

and the self-financed institutions of higher learning in Kerala do not respond

rightly to the economic needs of individuals and society, and if at all they do,

they respond to short-term needs of the markets; very rarely private

enterprises have genuine philanthropic motives.

In Kerala what we require is a rapid growth of good quality higher

education for the very survival in the highly competitive globalised world.

For the common cause of quality, welfare, and above all for the economic

growth, what we require very badly is a strong state-dominated higher

educational system which forges the very responsible, committed, and duty-

full private sector not encroaching nor outstaying government norms.

According to Mishra [1996]67, such a middle path – ‘state-Market

Partnership’ – is described as ‘Welfare Pluralism’. It represents a middle

ground, a centrist position, in the balance between the state and the non-state

sector. It rests on the following premises: “(a) that the limitations and the

limits of the private sector must be specified without any ambiguity; (b) that

the state cannot and should not be the monopoly provider of social welfare;

(c) that non-state provider should play with a motive of cent per cent

commitment and responsibility in the distribution of social benefits; and (d)

that the regulator is government, always and everywhere, and any significant

reduction in the role of the state in higher education is neither feasible nor

desirable.

Higher education is rightly and increasingly viewed as an, if not the

only, effective instrument of socio-economic mobility of the weaker sections

of the society. Higher education is the most important factor of economic

growth, and it is the education that makes the basic difference between the

developed and the developing countries. Taking these into serious

consideration, the state must play the dominant role in the provision of

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‘Quality Higher Education’ in the state without succumbing to market

mechanism.

A holistic approach

The higher educational institutions must aim at the holistic

development of students, and hence, multiple learning experiences are to be

provided along with class-room teaching. The Vision and mission of the

college is accomplished by providing opportunities for the integral

development of students through effective teaching, both theoretical and

practical, character formation through regular value education classes, and

building competence through skill development programmes. The academic

programmes include a blend of basic, applied, job-oriented and professional

courses.

As the colleges in Kerala are part of the affiliating system, they do

not have flexibility in designing or re-structuring the curriculum. Staying

within this constraint, the colleges try to adapt and render the curriculum

sensitive to fast-changing educational and global demands by offering add-

on courses, value-added courses, soft-skill development programmes, and

short-term certificate courses.

Learning must be student-centered through assignments, seminars,

discussions, and peer teaching. Experimental learning through field visits,

industry visits, community problem solving through project work and study

tours can be provided to enrich the learning experiences. Specific strategies

may be adopted for slow-learners and advanced learners to supplement their

needs.

To promote research and disseminate the findings, the colleges must

have Research and development cells and publication divisions. Seminar

proceedings and endowment lectures can also be published. Consultancy

Service Division is a feather on the crown of a college. It spearheads the

153

consultancy services of the institution. An automated library with enough

titles, journals and periodicals is a major strength of a college. Institute of

competitive studies provides coaching classes for competitive examinations,

including the national and state level eligibility tests.Infrastructure includes

an auditorium, seminar halls, a cafeteria, an audio-visual room, computer

and language labs with state-of-the-art facilities, hostels, reprographic

facilities, network resources, and media centres and an open-air theatre.

Facilities for physical development and sports and games for

students on the campus, including an outdoor stadium with playfields for

foot-ball, cricket, and other games and for athletics and a health club are

inevitable facilities to be attached to an institution of higher learning. A

campus satisfaction survey can be conducted regularly at the campus to rate

the infrastructure and academic facilities. Emphasis must be given on

adopting quality management strategies in academic and administrative

functions. Some of the academic initiatives include an internal quality

assurance cell, introduction of job-oriented and value-added courses,

advance planning for every academic year, student-centered teaching and use

of information and communication technologies in class-rooms.

A system of continuous student evaluation and an academic audit by

an expert team by the end of the academic year also form part of the

academic reforms. Community Development programmes involving students

and teachers open new vistas for social accountability among the academics.

Database

A reliable and rich database is the inevitable factor for a concerted and

protracted growth plan. As in industry, commerce, trade, banking or

insurance, the educational sector must have a strong data base. The main

handicap of higher education in Kerala is the absence of a reliable database

on higher education in the state. Hence, no planning and co-ordination could

154

be undertaken without an understanding of the existing scenario of higher

education in the state. The colleges, managements, and universities must

keep their own database. Let us have a strong and dependable database of

higher education in Kerala, and let the data be available to the researchers

coming in the field in future for a better and meaningful study.

REFERENCES

1. Gangadharan Nair, K., “Higher Educational Institutions of Kerala”,

Ph. D Thesis (Unpublished), Cochin university of Science and

Technology, 1989.

2. “Gurukula” – ‘a system of education in which a Guru (master)

imparteds training to a few Sishyaas (disciples) who lived with him

and formed his extended fmily’. “Commonwealth universities Year

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3. Silver Jubilee Celebrations Committee, university of Kerala, “Silver

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4. Gopinathan Nair, P.R., “Education and Economic Development In

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5. Sushama. R., “Role of Academic Bodies with Special Reference to

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6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

155

8. Ibid.

9. Prof. Jaleel, K.A.,former V.C., university of Kerala, “Education in

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10. Ibid.,p.48.

11. Ibid.,p.49.

12. Ibid., p.50.

13. Ibid.,p.50.

14. Ibid.,p.50.

15. Ibid.,p.50.

16. Ibid.,p.51.

17. Ibid.,p.51.

18. Official Web Site, Department of Higher Education, government of

Kerala, 2007.

19. Planning Board Data, government of Kerala, 2005.

20. Ibid.

21. Official Web Site, Department of Higher education, government of

Kerala.

22. Planning Board Data, government of Kerala, 2005.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

156

25. Academic Calendars of Various Colleges, 2006.

26. Official Web Sites of Various universities in Kerala, 2007.

27. Planning Board Data, government of Kerala, 2005.

28. Ibid

29. Opcit. 9, p.52.

30. Opcit.9, p.52.

31. Dr. ANP Ummerkutty, the former Director, state Institute of

Languages,Kerala, and the former V.C.,university of Calicut, “Higher

Education: Achievements and Failures”, Kerala Calling, aug.1997,

p.54.

32. Planning Board Data, Kerala, 2005.

33. The National Sample Survey Data, government of India, 2005.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid. p.4648.

38. Official Website, university of Kerala, 2007.

39. Jose P., Chacko, Reader, UGC – Academic Staff College, university

of Calicut, (opinion).

40. “The Report of the Commission for Re-structuring Higher Education

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chairmanship of Prof. Prabhath Patnaik, February 2001.

157

41. Ibid.

42. Dr. K.N. Panikkar, Vice-Chairman, “Kerala state Higher Education

Council”, (former Vice-Chancellor, Sree Sankara university of

Sanskrit, Kalady, Kerala),”Exclusive Interview given to ‘The Hindu’,

The Hindu Education Plus”, Tuesday, March 20, 2007.

43. Ibid.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.

46. The Directive Principles of state Policy, Constitution of India.

47. Ibid.

48. Gopinathan Nair, P.R. and Ajit, D., “Parallel Colleges in Kerala – A

Case Study”, working paper No.156, Centre for Development Studies,

Trivandrum.

49. Prof. Syed Iqbal Hasnain, Vice-Chancellor of university of Calicut,

“Over-politicisation stifling higher education”, The Hindu (National

Daily), Tuesday, October 31, 2006. .

50. Ibid.

51. Pylee, M.V., “Reforming Higher Education”, Dr. John Mathai

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158

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159

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