chapter 3 matter and minerals chapter 3 matter and minerals geology for engineers ge 50 university...
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Chapter 3 Chapter 3
Matter and MineralsMatter and Minerals
Geology for EngineersGeology for Engineers
GE 50GE 50
University of Missouri-RollaUniversity of Missouri-Rolla
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Minerals: Building Minerals: Building blocks of rocksblocks of rocks
• By definition a mineral isBy definition a mineral is• Naturally occurringNaturally occurring• Inorganic solidInorganic solid• Ordered internal molecular structureOrdered internal molecular structure• Definite chemical compositionDefinite chemical composition
• RockRock• A solid aggregate of mineralsA solid aggregate of minerals
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Composition of mineralsComposition of minerals
• Elements• Basic building blocks of minerals• Over 100 are known (92 naturally
occurring)
• Atoms• Smallest particles of matter• Retains all the characteristics of an
element
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Composition of mineralsComposition of minerals
• Atomic structure• Central region called the nucleus
– Consists of protons (+ charges) and neutrons (- charges)
• Electrons– Negatively charged particles that surround
the nucleus– Located in discrete energy levels called
shells
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Structure of an atomStructure of an atom
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Composition of mineralsComposition of minerals• Chemical bonding
• Formation of a compound by combining two or more elements
• Ionic bonding• Atoms gain or lose outermost (valence)
electrons to form ions• Ionic compounds consist of an orderly
arrangement of oppositely charged ions
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Halite (NaCl) – An example Halite (NaCl) – An example of of ionic bondingionic bonding
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Composition of mineralsComposition of minerals
• Covalent bonding• Atoms share electrons to achieve
electrical neutrality• Generally stronger than ionic bonds • Both ionic and covalent bonds typically
occur in the same compound
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Covalent bondingCovalent bonding
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Composition of mineralsComposition of minerals
• Other types of bonding• Metallic bonding
– Valence electrons are free to migrate among atoms
– Weaker and less common than other bonds
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Composition of mineralsComposition of minerals• Isotopes and radioactive decay
• Mass number = sum of neutrons + protons in an atom
• Isotope = atom that exhibits variation in its mass number
• Unstable isotopes emit particles and energy in a process known as radioactive decay
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Structure of mineralsStructure of minerals
• Minerals consist of an orderly array of atoms chemically bonded to form a particular crystalline structure
• Internal atomic arrangement in ionic compounds is determined by ionic size
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Geometric packing Geometric packing of various ionsof various ions
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Structure of mineralsStructure of minerals
• Polymorphs• Minerals with the same composition but
different crystalline structures• Examples include diamond and
graphite» Phase change = one polymorph
changing into another
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Diamond and graphite – Diamond and graphite – polymorphs of carbonpolymorphs of carbon
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Primary diagnostic properties• Determined by observation or
performing a simple test• Several physical properties are used to
identify hand samples of minerals
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Crystal form• External expression of a mineral’s
internal structure• Often interrupted due to competition for
space and rapid loss of heat
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A garnet crystalA garnet crystal
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Cubic crystals of Cubic crystals of pyritepyrite
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Luster• Appearance of a mineral in reflected
light• Two basic categories
– Metallic– Nonmetallic
• Other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, or earthy
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Galena (PbS) displays Galena (PbS) displays metallic lustermetallic luster
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Color• Generally unreliable for mineral
identification• Often highly variable due to slight
changes in mineral chemistry• Exotic colorations of certain minerals
produce gemstones
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Quartz (SiOQuartz (SiO22) exhibits a ) exhibits a
variety of colorsvariety of colors
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Trace ions give glass its Trace ions give glass its distinctive colorsdistinctive colors
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The health hazards associated with naturally occurring chrysotile asbestos, such as that shown here, are usually overstated.
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Streak• Color of a mineral in its powdered form
• Hardness• Resistance of a mineral to abrasion or
scratching• All minerals are compared to a standard
scale called the Mohs scale of hardness
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Streak is obtained on an Streak is obtained on an unglazed porcelain plateunglazed porcelain plate
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Mohs scale Mohs scale ofof
hardnesshardnessMoh’s scale relates the hardness of minerals with some common objects, such as fingernails, copper pennies, a steel knife blade, and glass.
Orthoclase feldspar (6) is used as a whitener agent in toothpaste, while tooth enamel is comprised of the mineral apatite (5)
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Cleavage• Tendency to break along planes of weak
bonding• Produces flat, shiny surfaces• Described by resulting geometric
shapes– Number of planes– Angles between adjacent planes
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Common Common cleavagecleavagedirectiondirection
ss
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Fluorite, halite, and calcite all Fluorite, halite, and calcite all exhibit perfect cleavageexhibit perfect cleavage
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Schematic diagram of the crystalline structure of Schematic diagram of the crystalline structure of sodium chloridesodium chloride, more commonly known as table , more commonly known as table salt. The actual ions are very closely packed.salt. The actual ions are very closely packed.
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Fracture• Absence of cleavage when a mineral is
broken
• Specific Gravity• Weight of a mineral / weight of an equal
volume of water• Average value = 2.7
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Conchoidal fractureConchoidal fracture
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Physical properties Physical properties of mineralsof minerals
• Other properties• Magnetism• Reaction to hydrochloric acid• Malleability• Double refraction• Taste• Smell• Elasticity
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Nearly 4000 minerals have been named• Rock-forming minerals
• Common minerals that make up most of the rocks of Earth’s crust
• Only a few dozen members• Composed mainly of the 8 elements that
make up over 98% of the continental crust
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Elemental abundancesElemental abundances in continental crust in continental crust
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Silicates• Most important mineral group
– Comprise most rock-forming minerals– Very abundant due to large % of silicon and
oxygen in Earth’s crust
• Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron– Fundamental building block– Four oxygen ions surrounding a much
smaller silicon ion
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Two illustrations
of theSi–O
tetrahedron
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Joining silicate structures• Single tetrahedra are linked together to
form various structures including– Isolated tetrahedra– Ring structures– Single and double chain structures– Sheet or layered structures– Complex 3-dimensional structures
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Three types of Three types of silicate structuressilicate structures
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Light silicates: Feldspar group
– Most common mineral group– Exhibit two directions of perfect cleavage at
90 degrees– Orthoclase (potassium feldspar) and
Plagioclase (sodium and calcium feldspar) are the two most common members
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Potassium feldsparPotassium feldspar
European engineers use K-spar in highway aggregates to increase pavement reflectivity and wearing surface.
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Plagioclase feldsparPlagioclase feldspar
Plagioclase feldspars are components of decorative dimension stone, especially “black granite” (gabbro).
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Light silicates: Quartz
– Only common silicate composed entirely of oxygen and silicon
– Hard and resistant to weathering– Conchoidal fracture– Often forms hexagonal crystals
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Light silicates: Muscovite
– Common member of the mica family– Excellent cleavage in one direction– Produces the “glimmering” brilliance often
seen in beach sand
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Light silicates: Clay minerals
– Clay is a general term used to describe a variety of complex minerals
– Clay minerals all have a sheet or layered structure
– Most originate as products of chemical weathering
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Dark silicates: Olivine group
– High temperature Fe-Mg silicates– Individual tetrahedra linked together by iron
and magnesium ions– Forms small, rounded crystals with no
cleavage
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Dark silicates: Pyroxene group
– Single chain structures involving iron and magnesium
– Two distinctive cleavages at nearly 90 degrees
– Augite is the most common mineral in the pyroxene group
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Common silicate minerals• Dark silicates: Amphibole group
– Double chain structures involving a variety of ions
– Two perfect cleavages exhibiting angles of 124 and 56 degrees
– Hornblende is the most common mineral in the amphibole group
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Hornblende amphiboleHornblende amphibole
Ferromagnesian minerals like hornblende and pyroxene tend to weather more easily than other minerals in plutonic rocks, like granite.
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Cleavage angles for Cleavage angles for augite and hornblendeaugite and hornblende
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Important nonsilicate minerals• Typically divided into classes based on
anions• Comprise only 8% of Earth’s crust• Often occur as constituents in
sedimentary rocks
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Table 3.2
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Important nonsilicate minerals• Carbonates
– Primary constituents in limestone and dolostone
– Calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 are the two most important carbonate minerals
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Mineral groupsMineral groups
• Important nonsilicate minerals• Many nonsilicate minerals have
economic value• Examples
– Hematite (oxide mined for iron ore)– Halite (halide mined for salt)– Sphalerite (sulfide mined for zinc ore)– Native copper (native element mined for
copper)
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Native copperNative copper