Chapter 3 Modern Ecological Perspectives

I. New-Orthodox Ecology: Economic OrientationII. Socio-Cultural Ecology: Socio-Cultural Orientation (Noneconomic Patterns)III. Social Areas Analysis: Quantitative Orientation (Technical Patterns)IV. Other Models and SimulationsV. Summary

Key Terms and WordsNew-Orthodox Ecology (59-R) 新正统区位学Amos Hawley (59-R) 埃莫斯 · 霍利James Quinn (59-R) J· 奎因Otis Duncan (59-R) 奥蒂斯 · 邓肯Leo Schnore (59-R) 利奥 · 施努尔Ecosystem (61-R) 生态系统 the total set of interrelationships among the physical, biological, and social variables in a local areas or (and) the entire globe.Ecological complex (61-R) 生态（区位）复合体Socio-Cultural Ecology (62-R) 社会文化生态学Water Firey (62-R) W· 法尔里

Key Terms and WordsSocial Area Analysis (68-R) 社会区域（位）分析 a method or typology of urban research developed by Eshref Shevky and Wendell Bell, through which areas of a city can be classified by organization and structure.Eshref Shevky (68-R) 埃什里夫 · 舍夫斯基Wendell Bell (68-R) W· 贝尔Census Tract (69-L) 人口普查地段Models (70-L) 模型Cousal Relationship （ 71-L ）因果关系Inverse Relationship (71-L) 反向关系 相反关系 Simulations (70-L) 模拟

Path Analysis （ 70-R ）路径分析 a statistical model in which variables are places in causal relationship to each other.Games (72-L) 策略运筹（博弈） a type of simulation in which people participate ----they take roles in the situation. (The text) 翻译P63Beacon Hill ：灯塔山 /Beacon 山The Boston Commons 波士顿公地、广场 old burying ground 老墓地 cultural variable 文化变量sentiment 情感

symbolic quality 符号属性、符号性质 sacred objects 神圣物 West end 西区Lower East Side （下、南，相对于 upper ）下东区Modern Amenities 现代设施、公共服务设施Bay ridge （海）湾脊 Social Background of Development of Modern Ecological Approaches  Research technologies, especially those involving the computer;The great changes in cities themselves.  Text P58 

Classic versus Modern Ecological Approaches  

I. New-Orthodox Ecology: Economic Orientation• James Quinn: The Division of Labor and its Effect on Spatial Distribution• Amos Hawley: Ecology and Human Ecology - from Urban Patterns in Human Ecology• Leo Schnore: Social Morphology and Human Ecology• Otis Duncan: From Social System to Ecosystem Otis Duncan: From Social System to Ecosystem1. Spatial Distance and Social Distance (social stratification)2. The Ecological Complex

How do Neo-orthodox ecological studies analyze spatial distance and social distance (residential distribution, occupational status and social stratification) Spatial distances between occupational group are closely related to their social distances;The most segregated occupation groups are at the extremes of the socio-economic scale (The rich); Concentration of residence in low-rent areas is inversely related to social-economic status (The poor); Centralization of residence is likewise related to social-economic status. The Textbook P61 

What is Ecological Complex Population, Organization, Environment, Technology can be used to identify clusters of relationships in ecosystem processes.

What is Ecosystemecosystem: the interacting environmental and biotic system exchange between the living and non-living, human communities and their habitats.''Ecosystem: is not just a metaphor for human organization. It is human organization. 

The basic variables in the “ecological complex ” (P.E.O.T Variables)An Example of an Ecosystem in OperationFor example, the smog situation in LA: E---P: haze --- respiratory tract E---O: organizations of people form to fight smog O---T: abatement devices P---E: People spread out, make smog worse （ See Textbook P62-2 ）

Inspirations from Duncan’s study• Spatial Distance and Social Distance ecological approach as one of the sociological perspective. (social stratification)• Conceptual Tools Useful and significant sociological approach and theoretical invention (“Ecosystem”, “Ecological Complex”, “P.E.O.T Variables” ) II. Socio-Cultural Ecology: Noneconomic PatternsStudy Examples in Socio-Cultural Ecology Water Firey: Land use in Boston Christen Jonassen : Geographic mobility of the Norwegian community in New York

Kuper, Watts, and Davies: Social segregation and ecological patterning in Durban, South Africa Study Examples in Socio-Cultural Ecology: Water FireyWater Firey: Land use in Boston.Three areas as examples a. Beacon Hill b. the Boston Commons （ commonland ） and the Burying Ground c. Boston ’ s North End: an Italian NeighborhoodTwo cultural variables: sentiment and symbolism, (textbook P63-1) 

Study Examples in Socio-Cultural Ecology: Christen Jonassen Geographic mobility of the Norwegian community in New York between the years 1850 and 1947 Traditional occupations and cultural value (Fishing, agriculture, openness and greenery) could be used to account for changes in geographic location of the Norwegian community. III. Social Areas Analysis: Quantitative Orientation (Technical Patterns)Method for identifying areas occupied by homogeneous groups of people

The population division most often studied in social area analysis is the census tract. Text 69LTracts having similar scores are considered to be similar “social areas”. Text 69L3 Underlying Dimensions of these patterns – or what the Social Area Analysts called Constructs

Socioeconomic Status (Social Rank)Family Status (Stage in Lifecycle, degree of Urbanization)Ethnic Status (Segregation) The census tract

Social Area Analysis by Shevky and Williams Definition and Method of Social Area  INDEX VARIABLES  Social Rank * Occupation (Economic Status) * Education * Income Level  degree of * Fertility Rate Urbanization * Number of Women in Labor Force (Family Status) * % of Single Family Dwelling Units  Segregation * Number of Persons in Highly(Ethnic Status) Isolated Population Groups  

Social Area Analysis•Changes in distribution of skills - gives socio-economic status•Changes in the way of life- women working and diversification of family patterns gives a urbanization status•Changing composition of the population results in a redistribution of space and ethnic status. Social Area AnalysisFindings

There are distinct residential area categories, such as high social rank, high urbanization, and low segregation (i.e. tracts with many well-educated, white-collar workers living in apartments with low fertility levels and many adult women employed in the workforce, and with few members of ethnic groups) .Tracts have similar scores are considered to be similar “social areas”. (Text 69)The more alike any two census tracts index scores, the more resemblance there should be between their land-uses, social structures, and population characteristics. (Text 69)……. something else ? (discussion and presentation) 

Strengths and WeaknessesText book, P69The technique’s inability to account for all possible URBAN situations, and identified the pre-definition of the content and the number of axes shaping the analysis as its major limitation.It was its lack of serious theoretical foundation, substituted by an intuitive and rather simplistic conception of the changing social structures that made it highly dependent on the features of the early post-war urbanization in the United States (rapid SUBURBANIZATION, proliferation of specific types of household and housing, and highly segregated minorities). 

Contribution to the Study of Urban Ecology and Some Other FieldsSocial (population) structures (rather than land use pattern and economic determinants) as spatial relationships are examined and observed directly. Some “critical variables”, such as the distribution of production and work oriented skill and population composition, are used to explain the size and complexity of society and urban organization.It is a fairly versatile research technique. Text 69R 

Contribution to the Study of Urban Ecology and Some Other FieldsConcepts of Social Area Analysis and Factorial Ecology now widely used in the business worldIn 1960s new word came into the English language: DemographicsMarket segmentation and target marketingZip codes are the functional geographic areas used for such work, though census tract level often used to obtain population dataExample: Claritas Corp PRIZM system of “Life Style Clusters” 

IV. Other Models and Simulations

1. Models（ 1 ） Definition (P 70-L) A model is a set of abstract statements about a phenomenon of interest that is used to characterize and /or explain its essential properties. Model generally involves advanced statistics, mathematical equations, graphs, chart and/or maps.（ 2 ） Two Major Ecological Models a. Those that characterize an area: Class Models (concentric zone, sector, multiple nuclei), Factorial Models (social areas analysis), Density model

b. Those that characterize groups: Residential Segregation Models, Group Location Models（ 3 ） Path Model for Mortality: A Model of Urban Mortality and Path Analysis Path Model for Mortality, Status, Age, and Crowding A Model of Urban Mortality and Path AnalysisFigure 3-2, Textbook P71

Other Models and Simulations2. Simulations(1) Definition Simulation: The act of simulating, or assuming an appearance which is feigned, or not true; -- distinguished from dissimulation, which disguises or conceals what is true.(2) Simulations versus Models Similarity: Difference: Simulation in which describes and understands the impact of changing conditions; Model in which describes the existing conditions

(3) GamesV. Summary1 、当代生态学的主要内容：当代生态学主要包括“新正统区位学”、“社会文化生态学”和“社会区位分析”等理论。“新正统区位学”强调经济因素在城市土地使用模式中的决定性作用，而“社会文化生态学”强调非经济因素的作用；“社会区位分析”则通过对具体社会指数的分析说明城市空间结构的类型。当代生态理论基本上是说明城市发展的技术－经济理论，并适当地补充社会组织和文化因素的影响。 2 、传统生态学与当代生态理论的主要基本区别在于：前者总结了人类生态体系的纵向结构，而后者揭示了横

向结构，具体表现在：（ 1 ）经典生态学区分人类生态的生物与文化层次，将其研究建立在生物层次，强调生物性竞争对城市的影响；新正统区位学并没有放弃这种两分法，但转向阐释和强调社会文化和技术等多重因素；最新城市生态学的发展侧重于城市个人和群体的文化、种族、族裔、经济和政治关系。（ 2 ）早期生态学探讨城市空间增长模式，将城市看作不同居民对资源竞争的有机产物；新生态学将非空间性组织形态纳入生态体系。（ 3 ）生态学探讨特殊城市增长模式，而当代城市生态探索中心城市与原来郊区周边城市、全国城市体系的内在关系。

3 、当代生态学的主要方法特点和相互关系：其特点主要表现两个方面：（ 1 ）宏观社会结构分析；（ 2 ）定量研究方法。相互关系——迄今各种生态理论或观点都试图根据系统观点解释城市社会－物质结构与特征，但没有任何生态学家单独可以形成一个完整生态理论体系。在学术观点的阐释中，往往发生这种结果；一个学者在强调具体事物某一特性时，其他学者容易补充其他特性，从而促进整个理论系统的发展。