chapter 3: racial & ethnic inequality

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R ACE & E THNICITY

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Page 1: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

RACE & ETHNICITY

Page 2: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THE SOCIAL MEANING OF

RACE & ETHNICITY

Page 3: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

RACE

Race – a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of society consider important Such As?

Skin Color Hair Texture Facial Features Body Shape

Highly variable concept. Varies across time and place.

We consider racial differences more important than other societies do.

In the US we tend to “see” just 3 racial categories: white, black, and Asian. Other cultures are different (ex: Brazil).

The Social Construction of Race: The US Census & Others

Defined differently by different people within a society. Ex: Colorism Among African-Americans

Page 4: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

RACIAL TYPES

Invented by scientists over 100 years ago to organize

the world’s physical diversity.

Initial categories were Caucasoid, Negroid, and

Mongoloid. Misleading at best and harmful at worst.

Knowing people’s race allows us to predict almost

nothing about them, but societies still consider race

very important. Why? Categories allow societies to rank people in a hierarchy,

giving some people more money, power, and prestige

than others and allowing some people to feel that they

are naturally “better” than others.

So it is all about stratification and the justification for

stratification!

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ETHNICITY

Ethnicity – a shared cultural heritage, which typically

involves common ancestors, language, and religion

Give people a unique social identity.

Also socially constructed, only becoming important when

society defines it that way.

Race (biological) & ethnicity (cultural) do go hand-in-

hand sometimes.

US Society Hundreds of Ethnicities

Is “American” an ethnicity?

American Ethnic Food

Page 6: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

INTERRACIAL RELATIONSHIPS

Racial and ethnic categories are becoming increasingly

diluted due to the increase in interracial relationships

and child-bearing.

Young people are more supportive of interracial

relationships than older people.

Trends in Interracial Relationships

Page 7: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

RACIAL AND ETHNIC CATEGORIES IN THE

UNITED STATES, 2006SOURCE: U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, 2007

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MINORITIES

Minorities – any category of people, identified by

physical or cultural traits, that a society subjects to

disadvantage Identity

Minorities share a distinctive identity .

Ability to blend in depends on the desire to hold on to

traditions and the willingness of others to accept.

Power Minorities are disadvantaged, receiving less schooling and

lower-paying jobs.

Not everyone in any minority category is disadvantaged.

Fewer Numbers? Not as important anymore! Over 25% of the US population are a R or E minority.

Majority minority in over ½ the 100 largest US cities and in

4 US states (Map on Next Slide).

Page 12: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

NATIONAL MAPWHERE THE M INORITY MAJORITY A LREADY EX ISTS

Page 13: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

PREJUDICE & STEREOTYPES

Page 14: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

PREJUDICE

Prejudice – any rigid and unfounded generalization about an

entire category of people

Prejudgement developed before interaction.

Difficult to change.

Positive vs. Negative

Involve social class, gender, religion, age, political

orientation, and sexual orientation.

Most are based on race and/or ethnicity.

Exs: Black people are lazy. Asians are smart.

Stereotypes – an exaggerated description applied to every

person in some category

Rigid beliefs that are often at odds with reality.

Typically negative, but not always.

Ex: All black men are criminals.

Stuff White People Like

There are ethnic stereotypes as well.

Page 15: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

MEASURING PREJUDICE

Measuring Prejudice: The Social Distance Scale

Bogardus (1925) – developed the social

distance scale to measure prejudice among

students at US colleges

Asked students how closely they were willing to

interact with people in 30 racial and ethnic

categories.

7 Point Scale

Marriage Barred from the Country

On Next Slide

Page 16: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

BOGARDUS SOCIAL DISTANCE RESEARCH

Page 17: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

MEASURING PREJUDICE:

RESULTS

Bogardus’ Results (1925):

Found that people feel much more distance from some

categories of people than from others.

Most prejudiced against Latinos, African Americans,

Asians, and Turks.

Most accepting of the English, Scots, and Canadians.

Parillo & Donoghue’s Results (2005):

More accepting of all minorities.

See less difference between the various minorities.

Increased prejudice against Arabs and Muslims.

Another Modern Study

Page 18: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

RACISM

Racism – the belief that one racial category is innately

superior or inferior to another Why is racism so widespread?

Because the claim that people are biologically inferior can

be used to justify making them socially inferior.

Past: Colonization & Slavery

Present: Hate Groups

Institutional Racism – racism at work in the operation

of social institutions, including the economy, schools,

hospitals, the military, and the criminal justice system Prejudice is institutional when attitudes are part of the

society’s culture so that there’s a widespread pattern.

Ex: The belief inherent in the CJS that minorities are

more likely to commit crimes.

Page 19: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

DISCRIMINATION

Page 20: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

DISCRIMINATION

What’s the difference between prejudice and discrimination? Discrimination – the unequal treatment of various categories

of people Prejudice = Attitudes / Discrimination = Actions Can be positive (+) or negative (--). Ruling out an entire category of people is wrongful

discrimination and it is illegal. Ex: Only interviewing applicants that have “Asian-sounding”

names for a job opening. Race & Crime

Institutional Discrimination – discrimination that is built into the operation of social institutions, including the economy, schools, and the legal system Ex: The widespread practice among police of pulling people

over for DWB, “driving while black.” Ex: News Coverage of Crime Victims

Page 21: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

VICIOUS CYCLE

Prejudice &

Discrimination: A Vicious

Circle

Thomas Theorem at

work!

Prejudice and

discrimination

reinforce each other.

Police Example

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PATTERNS OF MAJORITY-

MINORITY INTERACTION

Page 25: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

PATTERNS OF MAJORITY-

MINORITY INTERACTION

1. Genocide – the systematic killing of one category of

people by another 1500s+: Colonization

1930s & 1940s: Nazis in Germany & Stalin in Russia

Late 1970s: Cambodia

Present: Hutus massacre of the Tutsis in Rwanda; Serbs

murders of the Croats in E. Europe; Darfur in Sudan

2. Segregation – the physical and social separation of

categories of people Sometimes minorities self-segregate, but usually the

majority segregates minorities by forcing them to the

margins of society.

De Jure (by law) vs. De Facto (in fact) Segregation

Challenging segregation is difficult due to ↓ power.

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PATTERNS OF MAJORITY-

MINORITY INTERACTION

3. Assimilation – the process by which minorities gradually adopt cultural patterns from the dominant majority population Melting Pot – minorities adopt the cultural patterns of the

dominant majority Ex: English as the Official Language Varies by region.

4. Pluralism – a state in which people of all racial and ethnic categories have about the same overall social standing Salad Bowl – cultural patterns co-exist No minority category is subject to disadvantage. US: All people have equal standing under the law, but

tolerance for diversity is limited.

Which best represents modern US society? We are arguably somewhere between assimilation and

pluralism, but leaning more toward assimilation.

Page 27: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

RACE & ETHNICITY IN THE U.S.

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THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

Native Americans

Hundreds of distinct societies.

1400s: Conflict began with European explorers.

Referred to as “bringing civilization” to the New World.

Seen as the destruction of their civilizations.

Originally viewed as independent nations, but eventually

squelched through military power.

1871: Declared wards of the federal government.

Goal: Assimilation – Christianity, Reservations, English

1924: Gained full citizenship.

Low social standing likely due to cultural factors as well

as P&D due to their darker skin (Albon 1971).

Table 11-2, p. 318 – Continuing Disadvantage

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THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

WASPs Dominated the nation after European settlement began.

12% of our modern society, mostly from England as well

as Scotland and Wales..

Found at all class levels.

Experienced less P&D than other immigrants because of

their work ethic (due to Protestantism – Weber!).

Never a united group – much in-group hostility.

WASP wealth & power peaked in the 1950, but their

legacy remains. English is the dominant language.

Protestantism is the dominant religion.

Legal system has English roots.

Privileged referent – everyone else is a race or ethnicity.

Page 33: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

African Americans

1619: Beginning of slavery.

1661: First slave law in Virginia.

1776: Slavery was legal in every state.

1808: Slave trade declared illegal after over 500k arrived.

1863: Emancipation Proclamation

1868: Citizenship granted to all people.

1940s-60s: Ending legal segregation.

Sidestepped the D of I by claiming A-As weren’t people.

Despite major progress, currently A-As face continued

P&D and it is reflected in their lower social standing.

Table 11-3, p. 320 – Continuing Disadvantage

Note: There are NON-African blacks in the US!

Page 34: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

Asian Americans Over 4% of the US Population and 33% of All Immigrants

Very diverse group from a variety of different Asian countries.

Suffered immense P&D in the mid-20th century. 1882: Chinese Exclusion Act – ended the flow of new immigrants from

China (followed by similar provisions for other Asian immigrants)

1920: Some states banned interracial marriage.

WW2: Executive Order 9066 – forced the relocation of all Japanese-

Americans to military camps

1988: Symbolic compensation of $20k given to all surviving inmates.

Often described as the model minority due to emphasis on

education.

Many have assimilated, particularly those of high SES. But many also remain segregated.

But anti-Asian prejudice remains strong.

Table 11-4, p. 322 – Less Disadvantage than Other Minorities

Page 35: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

Hispanic Americans/Latinos

2006: 44M Hispanics, 14.8% of the US Population

There are many Latino cultures.

Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans – all came for different

reasons

Typically economically motivated.

Map 11-3, p. 324 – Southwest Concentration

Table 11-5, p. 325 – Below Average Social Standing

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THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

Arab Americans

1.2M Arab Americans, 1% of the US Population

Increasing in size.

Arab cultures are also diverse.

“Arab” is an ethnic category, while “Muslim” refers to a

follower of Islam.

Most Arabs are Muslim; Most Muslims are NOT Arabs.

Diverse in terms of social class.

Table 11-6, p. 327 – High Poverty Rate

Rising hostility toward Arab-Americans since 9/11.

Arabs often downplay their ethnicity to avoid P&D.

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THE SOCIAL STANDING OF

US MINORITIES

White Ethnic Americans

Non-WASPs with ancestors from Ireland, Poland,

Germany, Italy, or other European countries.

White Ethnics – recognizes the ethnic heritage and social

disadvantages of many white people

Over 50% of the US population.

Due to high rates of immigration from Europe in the 19th c.

Have historically experienced P&D.

Some formed supportive residential enclaves.

Gained a foothold in specific trades.

Diverse in terms of their social standing.

Ethnic heritage is often a source of pride now.

Page 38: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

Page 39: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THEORIES OF P&D

Authoritarian Personality Theory (Adorno 1950) - prejudice

is strong in people with an authoritarian personality

Feel a lot of hostility and conform to conventional norms.

See the world as right vs. wrong and us vs. them.

Can be caused by cold and demanding parents and limited

schooling, leading to little tolerance for others.

Scapegoat Theory – prejudice develops among people who

are frustrated at their lack of control over their lives and

blame someone safe rather than the real cause

Cultural Theory – prejudice is built into our culture

Conflict Theory – prejudice is used as a tool by powerful

people to justify privileges for themselves and to oppress

others

Which do you most agree with? Why?

Page 40: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

S-F Analysis: The Importance of Culture

Different cultural orientations can lead to unequal social

standing.

Culture of Poverty

Lewis (1966) – “Fatalism”

Poor Low Self-Esteem Sense of Hopelessness Don’t

Take Advantage of Opportunities

Fordham & Ogbu (1992) - Oppositional Culture

Discourages achievement by labeling it as “acting white.”

Critical Review

Culture is central and important.

Blames the victim.

If disadvantaged people lack optimism and confidence, it

is more the result than the cause of low social standing.

Page 41: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

S-I Analysis: The Personal Meaning of Race

WEB DuBois (late 19th c.) – every time black and white

people meet, race hangs in the air, defining each in the eyes

of the other A-As live with a “double consciousness,” a sense of always

looking at oneself through the eyes of others. Avatar & “The Veil”

US society makes whites the standard by which all people are

measured.

Race is a master status, a trait that defines and devalues.

Critical Review Race and ethnicity are a key building block of the reality we

experience in everyday life.

Race involves more than personal understandings. Important Structure

Dimension of Social Stratification

Page 42: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

S-C Analysis: The Structure of Inequality

The unequal standing of minorities reflects the organization

of society itself.

Class, race, and ethnicity operate together as important

dimensions of social inequality.

Importance of Class (Marx) Roots of social inequality lie in economy.

Criticized capitalism for concentrating wealth in the hands of

a small elite.

Capitalists play up racial and ethnic differences to keep the

working class divided.

Critical Review Downplays what people have in common.

Removes people’s responsibility for their own lives.

Ignores the significant strides we have made in dealing with

social diversity.

Page 43: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

What is the difference between race & ethnicity?

Why do we consider ethnicity, and particularly race,

such a defining characteristic?

What are some ways in which race & ethnicity are (or

have been) socially constructed?

Why should we study the sociology of race?

What can we do to fight prejudice & discrimination?

What are the various theoretical views of race?

Page 44: Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality

CONCLUSION

Race and ethnicity are socially constructed!

Primarily as a tool to justify stratification.

Categorizing people based on race and ethnicity is frowned

upon in our society.

But R&E inequality persist & minorities experience P&D.

Exists in the actions of individuals.

And in the operation of society itself.

Sociologists have tried to explain racial and ethnic stratification

in a variety of ways.

Racial and ethnic inequality will remain an important issue for

years to come, particularly as immigration to the US continues.

Any questions?