Chapter 3

STRUCTURE IN SCHOOLS

THE CLASSIC WEBERIAN BUREAUCRACY

• Division of labor• Impersonal orientation• Hierarchy of authority• Rules and regulations• Career orientation

Division of Labor and Specialization

• Because tasks in most organizations are too complex to be performed by a single individual, div. of labor among positions improves efficiency

• In schools, div. of labor is primarily for instructional purposes

• Subspecialties are based on level (elementary and secondary) and subject (math, science, bilingual, special ed., etc.)

Impersonal Orientation“the dominance of a spirit of formalistic impersonality, without hatred or passion, without

affection or enthusiasm”

• Weber argued that the working atmosphere of a bureaucracy should provide an impersonal orientation

• The employee is expected to make decisions based on facts, not feelings

• Impersonality on the part of administrators and teachers assures equality of treatment and facilitates rationality

Hierarchy of Authority

• Offices are arranged vertically

• In schools-- Superintendent at the top and assistants, directors, principals, teachers, and students at successively lower level

• Hierarchy attempts to guarantee the disciplined compliance to directives from superiors that is necessary for implementing the various tasks and functions of an organization

Rules and RegulationsRules and Regulations

• Every bureaucracy has a system of rules and regulations

• The system of rules:

1. covers the rights and duties inherent in each position2. helps coordinate activities in the hierarchy3. provides continuity of operations when there are changes in personnel4. ensures uniformity and stability of employee action

Career Orientation

• Because employment is based on technical qualifications, employees think of their work as a career

• Thus with career orientation, there is a system of promotion according to seniority, achievement, or both

• Promotion is dependent on judgment of superiors

Efficiency

According to Weber, bureaucracy maximizes rational decision making and administrative efficiency

The characteristics function to maximize efficiency because committed experts make rational decisions that are executed and coordinated in a disciplined way

Criticisms of the Weberian Bureaucratic Model

Weber’s model is criticized for several things:

1. Not being attentive to the dysfunctional features

2. Neglect of the informal organization

3. Does not deal with the potential internal contradictions among the elements in the model

4. Feminists denounce the model as gender biased

Functions and Dysfunctions of the ModelFunctions and Dysfunctions of the Model

• Division of labor can also produce boredom which leads to lower levels of productivity, or to a search on the part of employees for ways to make their work life more interesting

• Impersonality may produce a rather sterile atmosphere where people interact as “nonpersons” resulting in low morale

• Hierarchy of authority does enhance coordination but frequently at the expense of communication. Two of the major dysfunctions of hierarchy are distortion and blockage.

More Functions and Dysfunctions of the Model

• Rules and regulations often produce organizational rigidity and goal displacement. Employees may become so rule oriented that they forget they are a means to achieve goals, not ends in themselves.

• In Career orientation promotion is based on seniority and achievement which are not necessarily compatible.

The question now becomes:

Under what conditions does each characteristic lead to functional but not

dysfunctional consequences?

Functions and Dysfunctions of the Rules

Functions Dysfunctions

Explication----------------------------Apathy reinforcement

Screening-----------------------------Goal displacement

Punishment-legitimizing--------------Legalism

Leeway--------------------------------Indulgency

Punishment-centered rules are initiated by either workers or administrators, but not jointly, to coerce the other group to comply, and they result in punishment of one group by the other when the rules are violated, producing tension and conflict.

Representative rules are initiated and supported by both workers and administrators and are least likely to evoke dysfunctional consequences.

Neglect of the Informal Organization• The Weberian model has been criticized for its omission of the informal organization

• The informal organization consists of :

--interpersonal relations

--it is the natural ordering or structuring that evolves from the needs of participants as they interact in the workplace

--it includes informal structure, informal norms, and informal patterns of leadership

A Feminist Critique of BureaucracyA Feminist Critique of Bureaucracy--Goes beyond the common accusation that qualified women in modern organizations do not

receive equal treatment or compensation

--argues that in Weber’s model women are disadvantaged due to the emphasis on full-time commitment and extensive training as qualifications for job holding.

--bureaucracies are gender-biased not only in their application of appointment and promotion criteria but also in their selection of the criteria

--also argues that bureaucratic structures perpetuate systems of male domination

--gives priority to masculine virtues and values; puts males in dominant roles--the feminine side is often repressed and devalued by bureaucracies –puts women in

subordinate roles

Bureaucracy

6 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Structure

6 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Structure

• Hierarchy of Authority

• Specialization

• Rules for Incumbents

• Hierarchy of Authority

• Specialization

• Rules for Incumbents

• Procedure Specifications

• Impersonality

• Technical Competence

• Procedure Specifications

• Impersonality

• Technical Competence

Organizational TypesOrganizational Types

Professional Structure• Decision making delegated

to the staff• Rules and procedures are

guides• Administrators primary role

is to serve teachers and facilitate the learning process

• Decision making delegated to the staff

• Rules and procedures are guides

• Administrators primary role is to serve teachers and facilitate the learning process

Authoritarian Structure• Authority based on position

and hierarchy• Power is concentrated and

flows from top to bottom• Basic principal of operation

is disciplined compliance to the rules

• Punishment-centered bureaucracy

• Authority based on position and hierarchy

• Power is concentrated and flows from top to bottom

• Basic principal of operation is disciplined compliance to the rules

• Punishment-centered bureaucracy

Organizational Types (cont.)Organizational Types (cont.)

Weberian Structure• Professionalization and

bureaucratization are complementary and emphasized

• School effectiveness is predicted to be high

• Functions most effectively in a simple and stable environment

• Professionalization and bureaucratization are complementary and emphasized

• School effectiveness is predicted to be high

• Functions most effectively in a simple and stable environment

Chaotic Structure• Low degree of

bureaucratization and professionalization

• Inconsistency, contradiction and ineffectiveness are common

• Authoritarian structure usually needed to get system back functioning

• Low degree of bureaucratization and professionalization

• Inconsistency, contradiction and ineffectiveness are common

• Authoritarian structure usually needed to get system back functioning

Typology of School Organizational Structure

Professional

Pattern

High Low

Bureaucratic High Weberian Authoritarian

Pattern Low Professional Chaotic

Formalization and Centralization

• Formalization: formal job definitions and procedural specifications that govern organizational activities

• Centralization: concentration of decision making authority in upper management

Two Types of Formalization Enabling• Set of procedures that help

employees deal more effectively with inevitable problems

• Flexible set of guidelines

• Set of procedures that help employees deal more effectively with inevitable problems

• Flexible set of guidelines

Coercive• Set of procedures that

attempts to force reluctant employees to comply

• Procedures are designed to be followed exactly

• Set of procedures that attempts to force reluctant employees to comply

• Procedures are designed to be followed exactly

Two Types of Authority StructureTwo Types of Authority Structure

Enabling Centralization• Helps employees solve

problems• Flexible, cooperative and

collaborative• Administration help

teachers by designing structures that facilitate teaching and learning

• Calls for two way communication

• Helps employees solve problems

• Flexible, cooperative and collaborative

• Administration help teachers by designing structures that facilitate teaching and learning

• Calls for two way communication

Hindering Centralization• Hierarchy system set in

place• Administration takes over

to solve problems• Innovation obstructed• Administrators use power

to control and discipline teachers

• Hierarchy system set in place

• Administration takes over to solve problems

• Innovation obstructed• Administrators use power

to control and discipline teachers

Predicted Evolutionary Changes in School Structure

Predicted Evolutionary Changes in School Structure

Chaotic StructureChaotic

StructureAuthoritarian

StructureAuthoritarian

StructureWeberian StructureWeberian Structure

Professional Structure

Professional Structure

Mindful Schools

• Focus on Failure: scanning for problems and trying to fix them before they become big problems

• Reluctant to Accept Simplifications: goal is to simplify less and see more

• Be Sensitive to the Core Operations: expect the unexpected, but remember what is vital to keep schools operating

• Committed to Resilience: must detect and bounce back from mistakes

• Deferring to Expertise: encourage a decision making process that relies on experience over status

A Typology of School Organization

5 Basic Coordinating Mechanisms of Organizational Structure

• Mutual Adjustments: coordination through the simple process of informal communication

• Direct Supervision: coordination through simple command• Standardization of Work: specifying or programming the

contents of the work• Standardization of Output: specifying the results of the work• Standardization of Skills: provides indirect control of work by

specifying the kind of training required to do the work

The Five Basics Parts Of Organization

Tecno-structu

re

Support Staff

Strategic Apex

Operating Core

Middle Line

• Simple Structure: The strategic apex is the key part and direct supervision is the central coordinating device

• Machine Bureaucracy: The technostructure is the key part and standardization of work processes is the central coordinating device.

• Professional Bureaucracy: The operating core is the key part and standardization of skills is the central coordinating device.

• Divisionalized Form: The middle line is the key part and standardization of outputs is the central coordinating device.

• Adhocracy: The support staff is the key part and mutual adjustment is the central coordinating device.

• High degree of direct supervision• Small strategic apex• No middle line• Highly Centralized• Little technostructure• Little support staff• Little division of labor & specialization• Small administrative hierarchy

• Power centralized in the hands of the top administrator.

• Communication flows informally, but most is between the top administrator and everyone else.

• Common in small elementary schools where administrators commonly are autocratic or charismatic

• Work processes are routine and standard• High degree of centralization supported by

formalization• Rules and regulations govern this structure

(formal communication)• Decision making follows the chain of authority

from the top down

• A Few Large School Districts are Machine Bureaucracies.

• Power tends to be centralized at the apex (Superintendant, Ass. Superintendants, etc.)

• Many districts considered a cross between Machine Bureaucracy and Simple Bureaucracy.

• A Structure that permits both decentralization and standardization at the same time.

• Relies on standardization of skills that professionals have acquired in their training.

• Relationships more loosely coupled• Teamwork and collaboration among school

professionals is essential if school is to be productive.

• Has Characteristics of both simple structure and machine bureaucracy

• Highly Centralized, Highly Bureaucratic, but flat administrative structure

• Common due to societal demands for control, accountability, standardized educational outcomes, and inexpensive services from schools.

• This has to do with power, not structure.• This often becomes the dominating process

and teaching and learning become secondary• High degree of conflict which leads to

pressure for negotiation and alliance formation.

• Usually short lived due to their ineffectiveness in education.

Loose Coupling Perspective Loose Coupling Perspective