Chapter 3

The Social Self

The Role of the “Self”

• Capacity for self-reflection is necessary for self-understanding – Private, “inner” self

• Self is heavily influenced by social factors.– Public, “outer” self

The ABCs of the Self

• Affect: How do we evaluate ourselves, enhance our self-images, and defend against threats to our self-esteem?

• Behavior: How do we regulate our actions and present ourselves according to interpersonal demands?

• Cognition: How do we come to know ourselves, develop a self-concept, and maintain a stable sense of identity?

The Self-Concept

• Self is an important object of our attention.– Cocktail party effect.

• Self-Concept: The sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves.

• Self-concept is made up of self-schemas.– Self-Schema: Beliefs about oneself that guide

processing of self-relevant information.

Introspection

• Self-knowledge through looking inward at one’s own thoughts and feelings. Looking glass self.

• But does introspection always lead to accurate self-knowledge?– Wilson (2002): Introspection can sometimes

impair self-knowledge! How?

Other Problems With Introspection

• We have difficulty in predicting responses to future emotional events.– Affective Forecasting

• We tend to overestimate the strength and duration of our emotional reactions.– For negative events, we do not fully appreciate

our psychological coping mechanisms.– We focus only on the emotional impact of a single

event, overlooking the effects of other life experiences.

Perceptions of Our Own Behavior

• Daryl Bem (1972): People can learn about themselves simply by watching their own behavior.

• Self-Perception Theory: When internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain insight by observing their own behavior.– But only in the absence of compelling situational

pressures.

Self-Perceptions of Emotion/ Affect

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Changes in facial expression can lead to changes in the subjective experience of emotions.

• Laird (1974): Facial expressions affect emotion through process of self-perception.– Alternative explanation: Facial movements evoke

physiological changes that produce an emotional experience.

Self-Perceptions of Motivation

• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation.– Intrinsic Motivation: Originates in factors within a

person– Extrinsic Motivation: Originates in factors outside

the person

• What happens to intrinsic motivation once a reward is no longer available?– Overjustification effect

• Should rewards be offered?

Social Comparison Theory

• Festinger (1954): When uncertain about our abilities or opinions, we evaluate self through comparisons with similar others.

• Key Questions:– When do we turn to others for comparative

information?– With whom do we choose to compare ourselves?

Autobiographical Memories (cont.)

• Essential for a coherent self-concept.• Typically report more events from the recent

than the distant past.• Flashbulb memories serve as prominent

landmarks in our autobiographies.• Autobiographical memory is a vital part of,

and can be shaped by, our identity.– Often motivated to distort the past in ways that

are self-inflated.

Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept

• Self-concept is also influenced by cultural factors.

• Contrasting cultural orientations:– Individualism: One’s culture values the virtues of

independence, autonomy, and self-reliance.– Collectivism: One’s culture values the virtues of

interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony.

Why Do We Havea Need for Self-Esteem?

• Self-esteem: Affective component of self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations

• Satisfying this need is critical to our entire outlook on life.

• Those with a positive self-image tend to be happy, healthy, productive, and successful.

• Those with a negative self-image tend to be more depressed, pessimistic about the future, and prone to failure.

• But does high self-esteem ensure desirable life outcomes?

Are There Genderand Race Differences?

• Like individuals, social and cultural groups differ in their self-esteem.

• Gender differences? – Among adolescents and young adults, males

outscore females on various general measures of self-esteem.

– But this difference is very small, particularly among older adults.

• Racial differences?– Blacks have tended to score higher

Self-Discrepancy Theory

• Self-esteem is defined by the match — or mismatch — between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves.

• Self-esteem depends on a number of factors:– Amount of discrepancy between actual self and self-

guide.– The importance of the discrepancy to the self.– The extent to which one focuses on one’s self-

discrepancies.

• What makes us more or less focused on our personal shortcomings?

Coping with Discomfort

• 1) “Shape up” by behaving in ways that reduce self-discrepancies

• 2) “Ship out” by withdrawing from self-awareness

God: Like a Camera in the Sky?

• For people of faith, thinking about God should trigger a state of self-focus in the way that cameras and microphones do.

Self-Regulation

• Self-regulation is the process by which we seek to control or alter our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and urges.

• Is self-control a limited resource that can temporarily be depleted by usage?

• How much control do we have? Ironic self control

Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement

• How does the average person cope with his or her faults, inadequacies, and uncertain future?

• We often exhibit implicit egotism, a tendency to hold ourselves in high regard.

• What methods do we use to rationalize or otherwise enhance our self-esteem?

• The Better-Than-Average Effect.

Self-Handicapping

• Why do we make excuses?– Way of protecting self from seeing failure as due

to a lack of ability.

• Self-Handicapping: Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.

Downward Social Comparison

• When self-esteem is at stake, we tend to make comparisons with others who are worse off.

• Will make temporal comparisons between past and present selves.

• If experiencing a tragic life event, we tend to:– Affiliate with others in same predicament who are

adjusting well (possible role models).– Compare ourselves with others who are worse off.

Are Positive Illusions Adaptive?

• Those with the most realistic view of themselves are those who are depressed or low in self-esteem.

• Positive illusions are “health-protective” psychological resources that help people cope with adversity.

• But, positive illusions can lead to chronic patterns of self-defeating behaviors.

Strategic Self-Presentation

• Our efforts to shape others’ impressions in specific ways to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval.

• Common strategic self-presentation goals:– Ingratiation: Desire to “get along” with others and

be liked– Self-Promotion: Desire to “get ahead” and gain

respect for one’s competence

Strategic Self-Presentation

Reflections: The Multifaceted Self

• Historically, the self has been viewed as an enduring aspect of personality.– Stable over time and slow to change

• But at least part of the self is malleable.– Molded by life experiences– Varies from one situation to the next

• Self is complex and multifaceted, not simple.