chapter 4 directing

CHAPTER 4DIRECTING

LEADERSHIP

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Managers Versus Leaders Managers

◦ Are appointed to their position.

◦ Can influence people only to the extent of the formal authority of their position.

◦ Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be leaders.

Leaders◦ Are appointed or

emerge from within a work group.

◦ Can influence other people and have managerial authority.

◦ Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be managers.

Leadership is the process of influencing a group toward the achievement of goals.


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Traits Theories Research focused on identifying personal

characteristics that differentiated leaders from non-leaders was unsuccessful. ◦ Later research on the leadership process

identified seven traits associated with successful leadership: Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-

confidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and extraversion.


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Behavioral Theories Identified three leadership styles:Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation

Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback

Laissez faire style: hands-off management

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The Managerial GridSource: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organization Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, November–December 1964, p. 136. Copyright © 1964 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. All rights reserved.

System 1: Exploitative-Authoritative

System 2: Benevolent-Authoritative

System 3: Consultative System 4: Participative

Likert Management System


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Contingency Theories of Leadership The Fiedler Model

◦ Stated that the success of leadership styles depend on matching the leader’s styles with the conditions of a situations

◦ Assumptions: A certain leadership style should be most effective in

different types of situations. Leaders do not readily change leadership styles.

Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it favorable to the leader is required.


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Contingency Theories… (cont’d) The Fiedler Model

◦ Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire Determines leadership style by measuring responses

to 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives. High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style Low score: a task-oriented leadership style

◦ Situational factors in matching leader to the situation: Leader-member relations Task structure Position power


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Exhibit 17.4

Findings of the Fiedler Model


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Contingency Theories… (cont’d) Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational

Leadership Theory (SLT)◦ Argues that successful leadership is achieved by

selecting the right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness. Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on

whether followers accept or reject a leader. Readiness: the extent to which followers have the

ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.

◦ Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they become more competent.


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Leadership Theory (SLT)◦ Creates four specific leadership styles

incorporating Fiedler’s two leadership dimensions: Telling: high task-low relationship leadership

Selling: high task-high relationship leadership

Participating: low task-high relationship leadership

Delegating: low task-low relationship leadership


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Leadership Theory (SLT)◦ Posits four stages follower readiness:

R1: followers are unable and unwilling

R2: followers are unable but willing

R3: followers are able but unwilling

R4: followers are able and willing


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Exhibit 17.5

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model

Source: Reprinted with permission from the Center for Leadership Studies. Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the Center for Leadership Studies. Escondido, California. All rights reserved.


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Contingency Theories Path-Goal Model

◦ States that the leader’s job is to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with organizational goals.

◦ Leaders assume different leadership styles at different times depending on the situation: Directive leader Supportive leader Participative leader Achievement oriented leader

CHAPTER 4DIRECTING

MOTIVATION

Motivation is a process which begins with a physiological or psychological need or

deficiency which triggers behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.

DEFINITION

PRODUCE PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYEEEMPHASIZE QUALITYBRING GOOD ALTERNATIVE RESULT

IMPORTANCE

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

Frederick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

His research emphasized job enrichment (depth) rather than job enlargement◦ Job context (hygiene factors) –

needed to be optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.

◦ Job content (motivators) – factors that did lead to motivation

◦ Money (according to Herzberg) could motivate if it was seen as a reward for accomplishment; but if money was given without regard for merit, then it was a hygiene factor.

Frederick Herzberg

Policies and Administration

Supervision

Working Conditions

Interpersonal Relations

Money, Status, Security

Achievement

Recognition for Accomplishment

Challenging Work

Increased Responsibility

Growth and Development

HYGIENE FACTORSENVIRONMENT

MOTIVATIONWHAT THEY DO

Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Extrinsic factors Intrinsic factors

Factors within the job context:

Factors within the job content:

Pay

Status

Working conditions

Achievement

Increased responsibility

Recognition

DissatisfiersHygiene factors

DissatisfiersHygiene factors

SatisfiersMotivatorsSatisfiersMotivators

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

A Comparison of the Content Theories

Maslow(need hierarchy)

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness,social, and love

Safety and security

Physiological

Maslow(need hierarchy)

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness,social, and love

Safety and security

Physiological

Herzberg(two-factor theory)

The work itself•Responsibility•Advancement•Growth

AchievementRecognition

Quality of inter-personal relationsamong peers, withsupervisors, withsubordinates

Job security

Working conditionsSalary

Herzberg(two-factor theory)

The work itself•Responsibility•Advancement•Growth

AchievementRecognition

Quality of inter-personal relationsamong peers, withsupervisors, withsubordinates

Job security

Working conditionsSalary

Motivators

Hygieneconditions

Higherorderneeds

Basicneeds

Theory X and Theory Y Taught psychology at MIT. At Antioch College, McGregor

found that his classroom teaching of human relations did not always work in practice.

From these experiences, his ideas evolve and lead him to recognize the influence of assumptions we make about people and our managerial style.

Douglas McGregor

Work is inherently distasteful to most people.

Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.

Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.

Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.

Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives.

Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are favorable.

Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.

The capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.

Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and self-actualization levels, as well as physiological and security levels.

People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated.

Theory X Theory Y

CHAPTER 4DIRECTING

Communication

Communication◦ The sharing of information between two or more

individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.

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Communication and Management

Importance of Good Communication◦ Increased efficiency in new technologies and

skills◦ Improved quality of products and services◦ Increased responsiveness to customers◦ More innovation through communication

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Communication and Management

Verbal Communication◦ The encoding of messages into words, either

written or spoken Nonverbal

◦ The encoding of messages by means of facial expressions, body language, and styles of dress.

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Verbal & Nonverbal Communication

Form of communication

Formal Informal

Top to bottom communication

Bottom to top communication

Horizontal communication

Cross communication

Gossip Single strand Probability Cluster

Phases of the Communication Process:◦ Transmission phase in which information is shared

by two or more people.◦ Feedback phase in which a common

understanding is assured.

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The Communication Process

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The Communication Process

Figure 16.1

◦ Messages that are unclear, incomplete, difficult to understand

◦ Messages sent over the an inappropriate medium◦ Messages with no provision for feedback◦ Messages that are received but ignored◦ Messages that are misunderstood◦ Messages delivered through automated systems

that lack the human element

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Barriers to Effective Communication

We listen to reply, rather listen to understand

chapter 4 directing

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