Chapt er 4Reinforc e m e n t

Chapt er Outlin e

Defining Reinforce m e n tPositive and Negative Reinforce m e n t

Social versus Automatic Reinforce m e n tEscape and Avoidanc e BehaviorsConditione d and Unconditione d ReinforcersFactors Influencing the Effectiven e s s of Reinforce m e n t

ImmediacyContinge n cyMotivating Opera tionsIndividual Differenc e sMagnitud e of the Reinforcer

Schedules of Reinforce m e n tFixed RatioVariable RatioFixed IntervalVariable Interval

Reinforcing Different Dimensions of BehaviorConcurrent Schedules of Reinforce m e n tChapter Summ a ryKey TermsPractice TestAppendix AAppendix BChapter 4, Quiz 1Chapter 4, Quiz 2Chapter 4, Quiz 3

Idea s for Clas s Activi ti e s

1. Provide everyd a y exam ple s of behavior and conse q u e n c e s that illustrat e positive reinforce m e n t , nega tive reinforce m e n t , or neither and have stude n t s identify the exam ple s as positive reinforce m e n t , nega tive reinforce m e n t , or neither. Have them explain the justification for their answer. Alternatively, ask studen t s to provide novel, everyd a y exa m ples of positive and nega tive reinforce m e n t

2. Provide everyd a y exam ple s of different sched ule s of reinforce m e n t (for exa m ple, piece rate pay as an exam ple of a FR schedule, telem ark e ting calls as an exam ple of a VR sched ule , checking for the updat e on scores that are prese n t e d on the scree n every 10 minutes during football gam e s on television as an exa m ple of a FI sched ule , and checking e- mail for mess a g e s as an exa m ple of a VI schedule), have stude n t s identify the schedule of reinforce m e n t in the exa m ples , and justify their answers . Alternatively, have studen t s provide novel, everyd a y exa m ples of each sched ule of reinforce m e n t .

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Answ er s to Practic e Tes t Que s t i o n s

1. Reinforce m e n t is defined as a process in which a behavior is strength e n e d by the immedia t e conseq u e n c e that reliably follows its occurrenc e .2. The reinforcer provided to Thorndike’s cat was food. The behavior that resulted in the reinforcer was hitting the lever which opene d the door. The result of the reinforce m e n t was that the cat’s behavior was strength e n e d . Each time Thorndike put the hungry cat inside the cage it took less time for the cat to hit the lever that open e d the door.

3. To say the a behavior is strength e n e d mean s that the behavior is more likely to occur again in the future or that it will increas e in freque n cy, duration, intensity, or speed in the future.

4. A behavior that is strength e n e d through the process of reinforce m e n t is called an operan t behavior. An operan t behavior acts on the environm e n t to produc e a conseq u e n c e and in turn is controlled by, or occurs as a result of, its immedia t e conseq u e n c e . In Skinner’s experim e n t s , the rat’s behavior of pressing a lever in the experim e n t a l cham b er was reinforced with food.

5. See Figure 4.2 for an exam ple of a graph which shows the effect of reinforce m e n t .

6. Positive reinforce m e n t is when (a) the occurrenc e of a behavior (b) is followed by the addition of a stimulus or an increas e in the intensity of a stimulus (c) which results in the strengt h e nin g of the behavior.

7. Negative reinforce m e n t is when (a) the occurrenc e of a behavior (b) is followed by the removal of a stimulus or a decre a s e in the intensity of a stimulus (c) which results in the strengt h e nin g of the behavior.

8. Kevin’s behavior of giving his girlfriend a complime n t was positively reinforced with a kiss, and therefore , Kevin was more likely to complime n t his girlfriend in the future.

9. Bonnie’s behavior of reaching over and turning off her alarm clock was nega tively reinforced by the remov al of the aversive buzzing, thus strengt h e nin g her behavior of turning off the clock when it buzzes .

10. Positive and nega tive reinforce m e n t are alike in that both result in the behavior being more likely to occur in the future. The differenc e betwe e n the two is that in positive reinforce m e n t , a respons e produc e s a stimulus (a positive reinforcer) and in nega tive reinforce m e n t , a respons e remove s or preven t s the occurrenc e of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus).

11. Negative reinforce m e n t increas e s or strength e n s a behavior. Punishm e n t decre a s e s or weake ns a behavior.

12. In nega tive reinforce m e n t , the stimulus that is remove d or avoided following the behavior is called an aversive stimulus. The buzzer on the alarm clock is an aversive stimulus that is remove d when you turn off the alarm clock.

13. An unconditione d reinforcer (also called a primary reinforcer) is a reinforcer that requires no training or conditioning to develop as a reinforcer . Examples of uncondi tion e d positive reinforcers are food, water, and sexual stimula tion. Examples of uncondi tione d nega tive reinforcers are pain, cold, heat , or other discomforting or aversive stimulation.

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14. A conditione d reinforcer (also called a second ary reinforcer) is a stimulus that was once neutral but beca m e establish e d as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditione d reinforcer or an alread y establishe d conditioned reinforcer. For exam ple , a paren t’s att en tion is a conditione d reinforcer becau s e it has been paired with the delivery of food, warmth, and other reinforcers . Money is a conditione d reinforcer becau s e it has been paired with a wide variety of uncondi tione d and conditioned reinforcers .

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15. The five factors that influenc e the effectiven e s s of reinforce m e n t are (1) the immediacy and (2) consist enc y of the conse q u e n c e , (3) Motivating opera tions, (4) individual differenc e s , and (5) magnitud e of the conseq u e n c e .

16. Contiguity refers to the temporal relationship betwe e n a respons e and a reinforcer. For a conse q u e n c e to be most effective as a reinforcer , it should occur immedia t ely after the behavior occurs. The longer the delay betwe e n the respons e and the conseq u e n c e , the less effective the conse q u e n c e will be becaus e the contiguity or connec tion betwe e n the two is weaken e d .

17. A continge nc y exists betwe e n the respons e and the conse q u e n c e when the respons e produc e s the conseq u e n c e (the reinforcer) and the conse q u e n c e does not occur unless the respons e occurs first. Reinforce m e n t is most effective when the reinforcer is continge n t on the behavior.

18. An establishing opera tion is an event that makes a reinforcer more potent . For exa m ple, food will be a more powerful reinforcer when a person hasn’t eat en all day. Water will be a more potent reinforcer for someon e who has just run a race than for someon e who has been sitting on the porch drinking iced tea. An abolishing opera tion is an event that makes a reinforcer less potent . For exa m ple, completing a large meal makes food less reinforcing at that time.

19. A stimulus can be said to function as a reinforcer for an individual if the behavior which produc e d the stimulus increas e s (is strength e n e d ) in the future.

20. A continuous reinforce m e n t sched ule (CRF) is one in which each occurrenc e of a respons e is followed by a reinforcer . In an intermit te n t reinforce m e n t sched ule , each occurrenc e of the behavior is not followed by a reinforcer.

21. A CRF sched ule is used when a person is learning a behavior or enga gin g in the behavior for the first time. Once the person has acquired or learne d the behavior, an intermitt en t reinforce m e n t sched ule is used so that the person continu es to enga g e in the behavior.

22. In fixed ratio (FR) and variable ratio (VR) schedules , the delivery of the reinforcer is based on the numb er of respons e s that occur. In a fixed ratio schedule of reinforce m e n t , a specific or fixed numb er of respons e s must occur before the reinforcer is delivered . For exa m ple, if a rat’s behavior of bar pressing is being reinforced on a fixed ratio 10 (FR 10) sched ule , the rat will receive a reinforcer after every 10th bar press . In a variable ratio sched ule , the numb er of respons e s required for reinforce m e n t varies each time around an averag e numb er . For exa m ple, if a rat’s behavior of bar pressing is being reinforced on a variable ratio 10 (VR 10) schedule, the rat will receive a reinforcer after an avera g e of 10 respons e s .

23. In fixed interval and variable interval sched ule s , a respons e is reinforced only after an interval of time has passe d . In a fixed interval (FI) sched ule , the interval of time is fixed, or stays the sam e each time. For exa m ple, if a pigeon’s behavior of key pecking is being reinforced on a fixed interval 20 second s (FI 20 sec) schedule of reinforce m e n t , the first key peck that occurs after 20 second s has elapse d will result in the reinforcer. Like an FI sched ule , in a variable interval (VI) schedule, the reinforcer is delivered for the first respons e that occurs after an interval of time has elapse d . However, in a VI sched ule the interval varies around an avera g e time. For exam ple , if a pigeon’s behavior of key pecking

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is being reinforced on a variable interval 20 second sched ule (VI 20 sec), the first key peck that occurs after the interval has elapse d will be reinforced . Sometim e s the interval will be more than 20 seconds and other times it will be less than 20 seconds , but the avera g e length is 20 second s.

24. Ratio sched ules are more likely to be used in training progra m s , becaus e they produce higher and more steady rates of respon ding.

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25. When two or more sched ule s of reinforce m e n t are in effect at one time for different behaviors, they are referred to as concurre n t sched ule s of reinforce m e n t . For exa m ple, as a studen t , you are able to choose betwe e n studying, watching T.V., eating, and numero us other activities, each reinforced on a different schedule.

26. a. positive; b. nega tive; c. nega tive; d. positive; e. positive; f. nega tive

Answ er s to Quizze s

Quiz 11. operan t 2. less 3. positive 4. negative 5. immediacy, continge nc y, motivating opera tions , individual differenc e s , magni tud e of the reinforcer 6. conditioned 7. concurre n t sched ules of reinforce m e n t 8. continuous reinforce m e n t or CRF 9. variable ratio or VR 10. fixed interval or FI

Quiz 21. reinforcer 2. more 3. nega tive 4. positive 5. nega tive 6. acquisition 7. aversive 8. strengt h e n or increas e 9. fixed ratio or FR 10. variable interval or VI

Quiz 31. reinforce m e n t 2. continuou s reinforce m e n t or CRF 3. intermitt e n t reinforce m e n t 4. more 5. less 6. they both strengt h e n or increas e behavior 7. aversive stimulus 8. reinforcer 9. variable interval or VI 10. variable ratio or VR

Test Que s t i o n s

1. A behavior occurs and is immediately followed by a consequence that results in the increased likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future. This process is called:

a) reinforcementb) conditioningc) a reinforcerd) operant behavior

ANS: A

2. Andy answers a question in class, and is praised by the teacher. As a result, Andy is more likely to answer questions in class. Andy’s behavior of answering questions in class is referred to as ____________ behavior.

a) controlledb) naturalc) operantd) situational

ANS: C

3. Mary takes out the garbage and, as a result, her parents let her watch her favorite television show. Mary is then more likely to take out the garbage when asked. Being able to watch her favorite television show is a ____________ for her behavior of taking out the garbage.

a) reinforcerb) reinforcement c) contingencyd) dependent variable

ANS: A

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4. Which of the following processes strengthen a behavior?a) positive reinforcementb) punishmentc) negative reinforcementd) A and C

ANS: D

5. Tommy pets a strange dog and is immediately bitten. In behavior modification, getting bitten is referred to as the ______________ for the behavior of petting the dog.

a) punishmentb) reinforcementc) consequenced) antecedent

ANS: C

6. Barry throws the football into the stands after scoring a touchdown, and is cheered by the fans. As a result, Barry is more likely to throw the ball into the stands whenever he scores a touchdown. This is an example of:

a) negative reinforcementb) positive reinforcementc) punishmentd) satiation

ANS: B

7. Timmy swears whenever his mom makes broccoli for dinner. Timmy’s mom always sends him to his room without dinner when he swears. As a result, Timmy is more likely to swear when his mom makes broccoli. This is an example of:

a) positive reinforcementb) punishmentc) negative reinforcementd) extinction

ANS: C

8. An object or event that can be detected by the senses is referred to as a:a) reinforcerb) punisherc) stimulusd) behavior

ANS: C

9. The stimulus presented following the behavior in positive reinforcement is called:a) a conditioned stimulusb) a negative reinforcerc) a positive reinforcerd) an aversive stimulus

ANS: C

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10. The stimulus removed or avoided following the behavior in negative reinforcement is referred to as the ___________ stimulus.

a) naturalb) unconditionedc) aversived) conditioned

ANS: C

11. In which of the following processes is the behavior more likely to occur in the future?a) positive reinforcementb) positive punishmentc) negative punishmentd) A and C

ANS: A

12. In behavior modification, reinforcement is defined by its effect on behavior. This is referred to as:a) the Premack Principleb) an operational definitionc) a functional definitiond) a unique relationship

ANS: C

13. Which of the following is NOT a question to ask when trying to decide whether a situation represents positive or negative reinforcement?

a) what is the behavior?b) did the stimulus appear to be pleasant?c) was the stimulus added or removed?d) was the behavior more likely to occur?

ANS: B

14. On weekends, Laura comes home on time so that she is not grounded by her parents. Coming home on time in order to avoid being grounded is an example of:

a) positive reinforcementb) escape behaviorc) avoidance behaviord) punishment

ANS: C

15. Andrew wants to play baseball with his friends. Before Andrew can play, his parents tell him that he has to clean his room, which he hates to do. Requiring Andrew to clean his room before he can play baseball with his friends is an example of:

a) punishmentb) the Premack Principlec) escape behaviord) negative reinforcement

ANS: B

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16. Whenever Matt makes a 3 point shot, his basketball coach makes him run one less lap in practice. As a result Matt is more likely to hit 3 point shots. This is an example of:

a) the Premack Principleb) respondent behaviorc) negative reinforcementd) positive reinforcement

ANS: C

17. Which of the following is NOT an example of an unconditioned reinforcer?a) foodb) waterc) moneyd) escape from extreme heat

ANS: C

18. Money is an example of a(n):a) conditioned reinforcerb) conditioned stimulusc) unconditioned reinforcerd) unconditioned stimulus

ANS: A

19. Which of the following influences the effectiveness of reinforcement?a) immediacy b) contingencyc) establishing operationsd) all of these

ANS: D

20. Whenever Tony puts money into a pop machine, he gets a can of pop. Tony never gets pop out of the machine when he does not put money in. This is an example of __________ existing between putting money in the machine and getting pop out.

a) an establishing operationb) a contingencyc) a negative relationshipd) a functional definition

ANS: B

21. Beth has been hiking in the desert all day and, as a result, is dying for a glass of water. The increase in the reinforcing value of water due to hiking in the desert is referred to as:

a) satiationb) deprivationc) conditioningd) reinforcement

ANS: B

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22. John just ate a big Thanksgiving dinner. When John is offered a piece of his favorite pie he declines. The decrease in the reinforcing value of pie for John is an example of:

a) deprivationb) satiationc) reinforcementd) extinction

ANS: B

23. Which of the following are factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement?a) different reinforcers work for different peopleb) larger reinforcers are generally more effective c) A and Bd) none of the above

ANS: C

24. Nicole’s teacher praises her for every math problem that she completes. This is an example of a(n) _____________ reinforcement schedule.

a) intermittentb) fixedc) continuousd) interval

ANS: C

25. Tim is just learning to read. Which reinforcement schedule would be the most effective for him?a) continuousb) intermittentc) fixedd) interval

ANS: A

26. An intermittent schedule of reinforcement is most effective for _____________ a behavior.a) learningb) maintaining c) changingd) all of these

ANS: B

27. Tom’s supervisor tells him that for every 10 cars Tom sells he will get a $500 bonus. This is an example of a _______________ reinforcement schedule.

a) fixed intervalb) fixed ratioc) variable intervald) variable ratio

ANS: B

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28. A telemarketer has to make a certain number of calls before a sale is made. However, the telemarketer does not know the exact number of calls that will be required in order to make a sale. This is an example of a _________ schedule of reinforcement:

a) fixed ratiob) variable ratioc) fixed intervald) variable interval

ANS: B

29. In a ____________ reinforcement schedule, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response following an average of X amount of time.

a) fixed intervalb) variable intervalc) fixed ratiod) variable ratio

ANS: B

30. Which schedule of reinforcement produces high, steady rates of responding with very little interruption after delivery of the reinforcer?

a) fixed ratiob) fixed intervalc) variable ratiod) variable interval

ANS: C

31. All the reinforcement schedules that are in effect for a person’s behavior at one time are referred to as ______________ schedules of reinforcement.

a) concurrentb) overlappingc) simultaneousd) mixed

ANS: A

1. __________ is the resea rch e r who first demon s t r a t e d the Law of Effect.

ANS: Thorndike

2. In Skinner’s experim e n t s , a rat press e d a lever and received food. This process strengt h e n e d lever pressing. The food is a(n) __________. The lever pressing is a(n)__________. The process is called ______________.

ANS: reinforcer; behavior/operant behavior; reinforcement

3. A(n) _________ is a behavior strength e n e d through the process of reinforce m e n t .

ANS: operant

4. The conse q u e n c e that strength e n s an opera n t behavior is a(n) __________.

ANS: reinforcer

5. In the Premack principle, the opportunity to enga g e in a(n) ____________ is used as a reinforcer for a low probability behavior.

ANS: high probability behavior

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6. A(n) _________________ increas e s the potency of a reinforcer.

ANS: establishing operation

7. A(n) _________________ sched ule of reinforce m e n t is used when a person is learning a new behavior.

ANS: continuous reinforcement

8. In _________________ reinforce m e n t , a stimulus is remov e d following the behavior to strengt h e n the behavior.

ANS: negative

9. In _________________ reinforce m e n t , a stimulus is prese n t e d following the behavior to strengt h e n the behavior.

ANS: positive

10. When a person has just had a large amoun t of a reinforcer, will the reinforcer be more or less effective at that time? _______________________ What is this process called? ____________________

ANS: less; satiat e d

11. When a person has not experienc e d a reinforcer for a long time, will the reinforcer be more or less effective? ____________________ What is this process called? _____________________

ANS: more; deprivation

12. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered after X numb er of respons e s is __________________.

ANS: fixed ratio

13. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered for the first respons e occurring after X amoun t of time is _______________________.

ANS: fixed interval

14. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered for the first respons e occurring after X amoun t of time on the averag e is _______________________.

ANS: variable interval

15. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered after X numb er of respons e s on the avera g e is __________________.

ANS: variable ratio

1. T F A reinforcer works best when it follows the behavior immedia t ely.

ANS: T

2. T F Negative reinforce m e n t decre a s e s a behavior in the future.

ANS: F

3. T F An establishing opera tion is an event that makes a reinforcer more potent at a particular time.

ANS: T

4. T F A conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that is effective without any prior learning

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or conditioning.

ANS: F

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5. T F An uncondi tion e d reinforcer is a reinforcer that is effective without any prior learning or conditioning.

ANS: T

6. T F If an aversive stimulus is remov e d following the behavior, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future.

ANS: F

7. T F If a positive reinforcer is delivered following the behavior, the behavior is more likely to occur in the future.

ANS: T

8. T F In a Fixed Interval schedule, a reinforcer is delivered after a period of time has elaps e d .

ANS: F

9. T F In a Fixed Ratio sched ule , a reinforcer is delivered after X numb er of respons e s on the averag e .

ANS: F

10. T F In negative reinforce m e n t , an aversive stimulus is remov e d following the behavior and the behavior is more likely to occur in the future.

ANS: T

1. Define reinforce m e n t .

ANS: Reinforcement is defined as a process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequences that reliably follows its occurrence.

2. In positive reinforce m e n t , what happ e n s immedia t ely following the occurrenc e of the behavior?

ANS: In positive reinforcement, a behavior is followed by the addition of a stimulus or an increase in intensity of a stimulus which results in the strengthening of the behavior.

3. In nega tive reinforce m e n t , what happ e n s immedia t ely following the occurrenc e of the behavior?

ANS: In negative reinforcement, a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus which results in the strengthening of a behavior.

4. What is an aversive stimulus?

ANS: In negative reinforcement, the stimulus that is removed or avoided following the behavior is called an aversive stimulus.

5. How does escap e behavior differ from avoidanc e behavior?

ANS: In escape behavior, the occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred. In avoidance behavior, the occurrence of the behavior prevents the presentation of an aversive stimulus.

6. Draw a freque nc y graph showing the effect of reinforce m e n t on the freque n cy of a behavior.

ANS: See Figure 4.2 in the book for an example of a graph showing the effects of reinforcement on the frequency of a behavior.

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7. What are a couple exa m ples of unconditione d reinforcers?

ANS: A couple examples of unconditioned positive reinforcers are food, water, and sexual stimulation. A couple examples of unconditioned negative reinforcers are pain, cold, heat, or discomforting or aversive stimulation.

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8. What are three exa m ples of gener alized conditione d reinforcers?

ANS: Examples of generalized conditioned reinforcers are parent’s attention, money, and grades.

9. Identify the five factors that influence the effectiven e s s of reinforce m e n t .

ANS: The five factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement are immediacy, consistency of the consequence, motivating operations, individual differences, and magnitude of the reinforcer.

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