Chapter 4

Socialization Over the Life Course

Chapter Outline Nature vs. Nurture Debate Socialization Theoretical Perspectives and

Socialization Psychology and Life Course Theories Socialization and the Life Course Socialization and the Mass Media Functionalist and Conflict Theories

Questions for Consideration Who were the early proponents of

each side of the debate? Which do you feel is more influential

in development, nature or nurture? Why?

Do you think individuals can have a sense of self without interaction with others?

Socialization Socialization – life long process of

learning to participate in group life through the acquisition of culture. Learning what the expectations of behavior are in order to adjust and adapt.

The nature of humans is shaped by socialization.

Nearly all human behavior considered normal and natural is learned.

Socialization and Personality Important learning occurs in early

childhood. The cases highlighted in the video

demonstrate that, without early prolonged and intensive social contact, children do not learn basic developmental skills.

Without socialization, human infants’ personality is also not able to develop.

Importance of Socialization Harlow’s experiments show negative effects

of social isolation among rhesus monkeys. Infant monkeys need intimacy, warmth,

physical contact, and comfort. Babies denied close human contact

usually have difficulty forming emotional ties with others.

Touching, holding, stroking, and communicating appear to be essential to normal human development.

Social Isolation Among Humans Histories provided of three children – Anna,

Isabelle, and Genie – who were socially and emotionally neglected or abused.

Anna: was confined to an attic-like room in a farmhouse. Kept alive on milk until age of 5. When found, was extremely emaciated and undernourished. No signs of intelligence were shown and she could not walk or talk. Died at age 10.

At time of her death she could carry out instructions, identify a few colors, wash her hands, brush her hair, and try to help others.

Social Isolation Among Humans – Cont. Isabelle: child of a deaf-mute mother. Both she

and her mother stayed in a dark room, secluded from the rest of the family. Isabelle was found at age 6 ½, was physically ill from inadequate diet and lack of sunshine. She was unable to talk. Communicated with her mother through gestures. Reacted with fear and hostility toward strangers.

After two years of an intensive rehabilitation program, she acquired the skills mastered by a 6-year-old.

Social Isolation Among Humans – Cont. Genie: from the age of 2 was kept isolated by

her father in a locked room. Was found at age of 13, much of her behavior was “subhuman”. She was completely silent, did not cry or sob. Could not chew as she had not been given solid food. Social behavior was primitive.

Attempts to socialize her over a 4 year period were unsuccessful. She could not read, only speak in short phrases, and had begun to control some of her feelings.

Symbolic Interactionism and Socialization Charles Horton Cooley and George

Herbert Mead challenged the prominent belief in their day, that human nature is biologically determined.

Human nature is a social product according to Cooley, Mead, and Smith.

Key concepts include: self-concept, the looking-glass self, significant others, role taking, and the generalized other.

Looking-glass Self Theory This theory was developed by Cooley. Cooley defined self-concept – an image

of oneself as an entity separate from other people.

Looking-glass self – a self-concept based on our perception of others’ judgments of us.

The looking-glass self is the product of a three stage process that is constantly taking place.

Looking-glass Self Theory – Cont.

1. We imagine how we appear to others.2. We imagine the reaction of others to our

imagined appearance.3. We evaluate ourselves according to how

we imagine others have judged us.

Mead’s Theory of Development of Self Mead furthered Cooley’s theory of looking-glass

self. He stated that some people are more important to us than others.

Significant others – those people whose judgments are most important to our self-concept (mother, father, grandparents, playmates, etc.)

Role taking – the process which allows us to take the viewpoint of another individual and then respond to ourselves from that imagined viewpoint. A cognitive process that permits us to play out scenes in our mind.

Ability to Role Take - Mead1. Imitation Stage – begins around 1 ½ to 2

years of age. The child imitates the physical and verbal behavior of a significant other.

2. Play Stage – children take on roles of others (significant others) one at a time (e.g., playing house).

3. Game Stage – children learn to engage in more sophisticated role taking. Can consider roles of several people simultaneously (e.g., able to truly play soccer). Able to incorporate the generalized other – an integrated conception of norms, values, & beliefs of one’s community/society

Psychology and Life Course Theories Socialization involves our entire life

course. Development of personality is part of that

life course. Consideration of psychologically-oriented

life course theories can provide further context for understanding the process of socialization.

Sigmund Freud – Psychoanalytical Development The personality has three parts:

Id - made up of biologically inherited urges and impulses; selfish and irrational; ruled by pleasure principle.

Ego - the conscious, rational part of the personality; balances the Id and the Superego; ruled by reality principle.

Superego - the conscience; contains all the “right” and “wrong” ideas we have learned; all the “shoulds” we have learned from society.

Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Development Described developmental stages

that occur from infancy to old age. Each stage is accompanied by a

psychosocial crisis, or developmental task.

Socialization and personality development are lifelong processes.

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Age Crisis Favorable Outcome

First year Trust vs. mistrust

Faith in the environment and others

2 to 3 Autonomy vs. shame

Feelings of self-control and adequacy

4 to 5 Initiative vs. guilt

Ability to begin one’s own activities

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Age Crisis Favorable Outcome

6 to 12 Industry vs. inferiority

Confidence in productive skills

12 to 18 Identity vs. role confusion

Image of oneself as a unique person

18 to 35 Intimacy vs. isolation

Ability to form bonds of love and friendship

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Age Crisis Favorable Outcome

35 to 60 Generativity vs. stagnation

Concern for family, society, and future generations

Over age 60

Integrity vs. despair

Sense of dignity and fulfillment; willingness to face death

Jean Piaget – Cognitive Development Ability to think, know, and reason develops

through interaction with others. Each of us must pass through 4 stages in the

proper developmental sequence: Sensorimotor stage (0 – 24 mo.) Preoperational stage (2 – 7 yrs.) Concrete operational stage (7 – 11 yrs.) Formal operational stage (after age 11)

Questions for Consideration What are the agents (agencies) of

socialization identified in the video? Can you identify any additional

agents of socialization? Which agency/agent is considered

the primary one? What is the purpose of schools in the

socialization process?

Agencies of Socialization Family School Church Peer groups Mass media

Goffman’s Total Institutions Total institution – places in which residents

are separated from the rest of society (e.g., prisons, mental health institutions, military).

Desocialization – process of relinquishing old norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors.

Resocialization – process of learning to adopt to new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors.

These concepts were developed by Goffman to analyze processes in extreme situation, but they apply to other social settings.

Questions for Consideration How culturally universal are the

various life stage development theories relative to how people learn the rules of a society?

Are life cycle stages defined by biology, psychology, or sociology?

Socialization & Family Family is the child’s first exposure to

the world. Through members of the family we learn to

think and speak; internalize norms, beliefs, and values; form basic attitudes; develop capacity for intimate and personal relationships; and acquire a self-image.

Impact of family reaches far beyond direct effects on the personal and social development of the child.

Impacts of the Family Our family of birth largely

determines our place in society. Social class significantly affects how

others treat us and what we think of ourselves. Our social class is initially determined by our family.

What other areas relative to social location does the family impact?

Schools and Socialization Agency of socialization controlled by

nonrelatives. Exposes children to objective standards of

performance. Encourages them to develop loyalties

beyond their own families. Trains children to be disciplined, orderly,

cooperative, and conforming. Hidden curriculum – informal and unofficial

aspects of culture that children are taught as preparation for life in larger society.

Peer Groups and Socialization Agency of socialization not controlled by

adults. Provides young people with experiences they

cannot easily obtain elsewhere. Teaches young people to deal with others

as equals. Children learn to be different from their

parents in ways that contribute to self-sufficiency.

Helps them gain experience in self-direction and establish independence from adults.

Mass Media and Socialization Mass Media – means of communication

designed to reach the general population. Sociologists agree that mass media are

powerful socializing agencies (e.g., television, radio, magazines, movies, books, the Internet, tapes, CDs).

Children learn behavior expected of individuals in certain social statuses.

The media display role models for children to imitate.

Television and Socialization 99% of all U.S. households have at least one

television set. Average U.S. household watches over 6 hrs. of

television daily. Therefore TV contributes significantly to the

socialization process. By elementary school completion a child has

seen 8,000 murders. At age 18, that child will have witnessed

200,000 violent acts.

TV and Socialization – Cont. Television effects are usually hidden,

subtle, and long term. Researchers generally agree that at

times the effect of TV is direct, concrete, and dramatic.

Availability of Television

Questions for Consideration What geographical factor(s) might

contribute to the density of TV households in South America?

Do you think members of societies with few televisions are as well socialized as members of societies with more sets? Why/why not?

What other questions might you pose after looking at this map?

Stages of Adult Development Early Adulthood (18 to late 30s)

Involves a move beyond adolescence and a preliminary step into adulthood.

Interest in achieving occupational success, contributing to society, and establishing a solid family life are central here.

Ends when the individual has made a life within the adult world.

Stages of Adult Development – Cont. Middle Adulthood (late 30s to mid 60s)

New questions about one’s place in the world arise.

Choices are made to either continue the path already taken or establish a different life path.

Usually subtle changes take place. Acceptance of one’s level of achievement

occurs at the end of this stage. Emphasis of success is replaced by concern

with personal relationships and small pleasures in life.

Stages of Adult Development – Cont. Late Adulthood (Mid 60s until death)

Major challenge is the withdrawal from participation in certain major aspects of social life.

Roles are lost because statuses are lost. Expected to retire from work. Generally face the loss of a spouse.

Periods in the Eras of Early and Middle Adulthood

Questions for Consideration Does this model of development

apply to both men and women? Does the model apply across

different cultures and subcultures? What are socialization experiences

unique to women? Unique to men?

Functions of the media

1. Provides valuable information.2. Promotes social continuity and

integration.3. Supplies entertainment.4. Explains and interprets meanings

of events and information.5. Mobilizes society when necessary.

Dysfunctions of the mass media1. Increases social conformity.2. Legitimates the status quo.3. Impedes social change while promoting

social continuity and integration.4. Diverts the public from serious issues

through trivial entertainment.5. Shapes views through editorializing as

they “interpret” events and information.6. Creates violence via public mobilization.

Conflict Theory and the Media: Marxian View Workers are exploited by being paid less

than they deserve. Consumers are overcharged. Ruling class receives excessive profits. The media are a tool of manipulation

by which the ruling class maintains its power.

Conflict Theory and the Media: Power Elite (Dye) Evidence that the media is

controlled by the ruling class: Concentration of power in the

media Agenda-setting power of the

media Media’s ability to socialize

the population

Questions for Consideration Who do you think has more

influence on people’s behavior – friends or family? Explain.

As a college student have you undergone desocialization, resocialization, anticipatory socialization? Explain.