chapter 4 · sustainable development must be focused on the fight against poverty, especially rural...

Chapter 4

Acacia trees on a parched landscape in Senegal.Photo. Dominique Roger. © UNESCO

Skills and Jobs for a Green Future

Villagers take advantage of an overowing river in Myanmar.Photo: © Poet, www.poet.net

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N Chapter 4Skills and Jobs for a Green Future

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4.1 How Climate Change Impacts the Rural Poor ............................................................................................................133

4.2 Greening Rural Transformation – Sustainability in Agriculture and Rural Economy ...................................139

4.3 Skills and Capacity Needs for Sustainable Rural Transformation ........................................................................142

4.4 Promoting Skills and Jobs for the Green Rural Transformation ..........................................................................149

Chapter 4Skills and Jobs for a Green Future

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meeting their own needs.

– The World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (The Brundtland Report), 1987, p.43

Eradicating poverty is the greatest global challenge facing the world today and an indispensable requirement for sustain-able development, particularly for developing countries.

– The Plan of Implementation of the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002

The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD, 2005-2014), for which UNESCO is the lead agency, seeks to integrate the principles, values, and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning, in order to address the social, economic, cultural and environmental problems we face in the 21st century.

– Global Development Research Center, UNESCO, 2002, www.gdrc.org/sustdev/un-desd/

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What is a green future? It is the vision of the planet and

communities which are cleaner, safer and greener than today. It is the manifestation of sustainable development ”that meets the needs of the present without compromis-ing the ability of future generations to meeting their own needs” as articulated by the World Commission on Environ-ment and Development (the Brundtland Report: 1987). It is about preventing, adapting to and mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.

Climate change affects the poor disproportionately and has far-reaching consequences for agricultural and rural development. As a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, agriculture also has huge potential to reduce emissions through reduced deforestation and changes in land use and agricultural practices. But this potential has to be realised in ways that reduce poverty of the rural major-ity in developing countries and promote the goals of rural transformation.

The four parts of this chapter will discuss: (i) the impor-tance of green development – how climate change im-pacts the rural poor; (ii) greening of rural transformation – sustainability issues in agriculture and rural economy; (iii) skills and capacity needs for sustainable rural trans-formation; and (iv) promoting skills and jobs for the green rural transformation.

4.1 How Climate Change Impacts the Rural Poor

It can be justifiably argued that in two decades since the 1992 World Conference on Environment and Develop-ment, workable policies and strategies are yet to be de-veloped and used widely, which effectively integrate envi-ronmental sustainability and poverty alleviation in general, and rural poverty in particular. Moreover, the forces of globalisation have served more as inhibitors than drivers in placing sustainable development at the centre of eco-nomic policy prescriptions, not to speak of sustainable ru-ral transformation, and accompanying institutional reforms (Reed: 2002).

The overwhelming reality at the beginning of the 21st century is that the extent of poverty globally remains mas-sive. As Lester Brown put it:

The social and economic gap between the world’s richest

1 billion people and its poorest 1 billion has no historical

precedent. Not only is this gap wide, it is widening. The

poorest billion are trapped at subsistence level and the

richest billion are becoming wealthier with each passing

year. The economic gap can be seen in the contrasts in

nutrition, education, disease patterns, family size, and life

expectancy (Brown: 2008, p.107).

The impact of these changes, even before they reach a critical threshold, is disproportionately adverse on the rural poor and their efforts to overcome their circumstances, as noted in earlier chapters.

Effects of climate change show that poor people are most likely to be the first victims and the greatest suf-ferers of environmental degradation. The rural poor are more vulnerable than others to environmental hazards and environment-related conflicts and least able to cope with them when these occur. They also tend to be most dependent on the natural environment and direct use of natural resources, and are therefore most severely affected by environmental degradation and lack of access to natu-ral resources.

On an operational level, the concept and practice of sustainable development must be focused on the fight against poverty, especially rural poverty in developing countries, given its preponderance in these countries. By integrating environmental considerations into the struggle against poverty, and vice versa, the chances of achieving meaningful progress will substantially increase. At least three key elements of this integrated approach, as noted below, have emerged from the discourse on sustainable development, and ways of enhancing skills and capacities of people through education, training and relevant sup-portive strategies (Ahmed: 2010).

•Overcoming marginalisation and disparity and claim-ing a stake for all in economic and social development: The vulnerable poor in rural areas, who form the major-ity in developing countries, have to be given a stake in sustainable development. Important aspects of this effort are empowerment of people at the local level in designing and achieving poverty reduction; access to productive assets, capital and technology for the poor;

How Climate Change Impacts the Rural Poor

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and social safety net and economic support to the ultra-poor, those who are ineligible even for microfinance, in order to enhance their capabilities to access capital and technology.

•Coping with the feminization of poverty: Women, mak-ing up two-thirds of the world's poor, are more likely than men to be poor, malnourished and illiterate. They usually have less access to medical care, property own-ership, and employment, and are far less likely than men to be politically active.

•Women are also the first to encounter the effects of ecological stress, because they must walk farther to get wood for cooking and heating, to search for clean water and to find new sources of food. The responsibility for rearing children and ensuring sufficient resources to meet their needs for nutrition, health care and school-ing falls upon the mother. Women's lives have been inextricably linked to the use of natural resources in tra-ditional society. Economic and technological develop-ment and expansion of economic opportunities often altered the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature and added new stress both on women’s life and on the natural environment (see Chant: 2006).

•Promoting sustainable production and consumption in the context of poverty reduction: Roughly five percent of the people of the world in North America enjoys one-third of the world’s economic output. On the other hand, one-third of the world’s population in China and India can lay claim on only six percent of the world’s economic output.

Arguably, the central point of debate on sustainability is whether the pattern of consumption and production in North America and Europe is sustainable for the majority of the world outside the privileged enclave. Another way of posing this question is: Is it responsible behaviour on the part of the developing world to aspire to emulate and aim to achieve the pattern of production and consump-tion of North America and Europe? By the same token, is it responsible for the rich countries to insist on protecting the privileges they have enjoyed? If not, is there an alter-native development path that the developing countries need to find and follow, while protecting and promoting the rights, dignity and well-being of all human beings? And what are the corresponding moral, ethical and

enlightened self-interest imperatives for the rich countries

of the industrial world? (Korten: 2003)

Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute points out:

The western economic model – the fossil-fuel-based,

automobile-centred, throwaway economy – is not going

to work for China. If it doesn’t work for China, it won’t work

for India or the other 3 billion people in developing coun-

tries who are also dreaming the American dream. And in

an increasingly integrated world economy, where we all

depend on the same grain, oil, and steel, it will not work for

industrial countries either. The challenge for our generation

is to build a new economy, one that is powered largely by

renewable sources of energy, that has a highly diversified

transport system, and that reuses and recycles everything.

And to do it with unprecedented speed (Brown: 2008, p.XII).

Consequences of global warming for agriculture

The impact of climate change on agriculture and thus on

the rural poor, who are dependent on agriculture for liveli-

hood, can be devastating. The evidence of the threat of

global warming on agriculture is unambiguous, though its

magnitude in different contexts may be debated. Changes

in temperature, precipitation, carbon dioxide storage and

emission, fertiliser needs, and water on surface and under-

ground are the major factors that affect agriculture pros-

pects. The assumption of a moderate increase in global

temperature (1-3 degrees Celsius) would have an overall

moderate effect on agricultural production, but would

have different impact on warmer and temperate zones of

the world, with a more severe negative impact on the de-

veloping countries in the tropics.

A higher estimate of global temperature rise of above 3

degrees Celsius would adversely affect all regions, but

the tropics would suffer particularly severely. Decline of

wheat and maize yields in parts of Africa, Asia and Central

America could be by 20 to 40 percent. Rice also would be

affected, but less severely. These conservative estimates do

not take into account the consequences of more intense

droughts and floods, changes in surface water runoff and

the effects on other crops and livestock (World Bank: 2008,

pp.200-201).

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Food security in jeopardy

In several Sub-Saharan African countries, declining precipi-

tation could reduce yields from rain-fed agriculture by up

to 50 percent by 2020. Agricultural production and access

to food are likely to be severely compromised in many

areas of the continent, endangering food security and ex-

acerbating malnutrition (IPCC: 2007).

The high reliance on agricultural production, for both food

and income, of rural people in developing countries inten-

sify the negative effects of climate change. In Mali, agricul-

ture accounts for 40 percent of GDP and provides primary

livelihood for 80 percent of the population. In India, close

to 60 percent of the working population is engaged in ag-

riculture. The change in the patterns of the monsoon due

to increases in global temperature will have detrimental

effects on agricultural production and people’s livelihood.

Countries such as Brazil and Egypt will be affected by de-

creasing precipitation, putting pressure on dwindling wa-

ter resources, thus inhibiting agricultural production. Many

countries such as Bangladesh, Brazil and the Philippines

already suffer from droughts and floods simultaneously, in

different parts of the country or at different times of the

year. These effects are likely to be further aggravated by cli-

mate change. Competition between land use for food and

Biofuel production has consequences for food security and

employment pattern, which calls for careful balancing (see

Box 4.1 and ILO: 2011a).

Other social and economic impacts

Climate change and environmental degradation not

only damage the environment; the immediate and

longer term negative social and economic impacts are

immense. Nicholas Stern, in his influential review of the

global impacts of climate change, estimated that the

reduction in global GDP due to the effects of climate

change could be at least 5 percent currently and as

much as 20 percent by 2050 (Stern: 2006). The number

of people forced to abandon their homes and liveli-

hoods by floods, droughts and other weather-related

events would increase over the next decade; and water

shortages and malnutrition threaten to affect 600 mil-

lion people by 2080 (UNEP et al.: 2008, p.20).


Bangladesh

A minor contributor to global GHG emissions, Bangladesh is suffering from highly disproportionate climate change impacts. Environmental degrada-tion is happening through soil erosion, deforestation, increased water salinity and water body pollution. The most damaging effects of climate change in Bangladesh, heavily dependent on agriculture, are floods, salinity intrusion, and droughts that have been drastically affecting crop productivity almost every year. This is critical to the economy of Bangladesh, which relies predominantly on agriculture. Mass deforestation is occurring, including burning already low forest cover to clear land.

A system or institutional responsibility does not exist for identification of current and future skill needs for any kind of jobs – non-green or green – in the la-bour market. In the absence of firm policy agenda, the delivery mechanisms of the existing institutions for developing skills for green jobs remain weak.

Brazil

The primary sectors for emitting CO2 in 2005 were forestry and agriculture, accounting for four-fifths of CO2 emissions. The emissions and characteris-tics of energy supply sources point towards four primary environmental challenges:

•Decreasing the net loss of forest area;

• Implementing incentives for adoption of agro-forestry systems, no-till farming, energy efficiency, waste management and clean production measures;

•Encouraging the replacement of fossil fuels by biodiesel and ethanol for countrywide transportation; and

•Actively participating in the national Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

The transition of Brazil towards a low-carbon economy is mainly driven by environmental legislation at international and national levels. Environmen-tal legislation, to the extent implemented effectively, leads to direct and indirect effects on the demand for green occupations and skills.

Box 4.1 Policy Context in Selected Countries: Climate Change Impact and Priorities

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Box 4.1 (continued)

China

Emissions primarily produced by burning fossil fuels. Current industries need to be analysed to identify opportunities for greening as a priority, includ-ing not just non-wood pulp and paper production, but also new industries such as those for alternative energy.

The shift towards a greener economy in China will require workers to develop new green skills, leading to an adjustment in skills development strate-gies and training programmes. A major part of the challenge will be implementing changes in the vocational training sector, which provides training to 80 percent of occupations. Green occupations are a new concept in China and therefore few professional qualifications have been adopted. China needs to ensure that green jobs offer adequate wages and opportunities to workers.

China is planning a significant increase in its use of wind and solar power over the next decade offering new incentives. These green jobs require new skills among workers. China will need to re-direct training focus on environmental management and protection skills in eco-friendly technologies, including those which support renewable energy sectors, energy efficiency and recycling.

Egypt

A rapidly growing population places an increasing pressure on natural resources, resulting in stress on land and water and habitat destruction. Seri-ous ecological problems are manifested in shoreline erosion in coastal zones. The Delta region faces problems of possible flooding due to rising sea levels. In addition, agricultural productivity could be negatively impacted by the increase in average temperatures. Human health hazards are likely to increase, as climate change may lead to outbreaks of vector-borne diseases. Egypt’s total CO2 emissions were estimated at 158 million metric tons, 1 percent of the total world emissions. However, emissions had escalated by 40 percent between 1996 and 2004. Major contributors to GHG emissions in Egypt are the energy sector (22 percent), manufacturing (19 percent), transport sector (18 percent), agriculture (15 percent), small combustion (9 percent), non-combustion emissions in industry (9 percent) and waste (5 percent).

A structured approach to skills response to climate change does not exist. Lax enforcement of environmental regulations is a disincentive for invest-ing in alternatives to improve environmental performance. Initiatives for mitigation and adaptation to climate change are mostly implemented on a relatively small scale and in the form of donor-supported projects.

India

The Indian economy is now the fourth largest economy in the world and the fifth largest greenhouse gas emitter, accounting for 5 percent of global emissions. In per capita terms, it is low for a rapidly developing country. India’s policies for sustainable development focus on energy efficiency and energy pricing, renewable and cleaner energy supply, pollution abatement, reforestation and mass transport. These policies could translate into pro-jects that generate millions of ”green jobs” in the coming years. Close to 60 percent of the working population of India are engaged in agriculture, making this the biggest employment sector. Crop production in India is critically dependent on the summer monsoon, making the agricultural sector highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. A major problem is the degradation of national water resources due to excessive water withdrawal for irrigation, industry and domestic consumption.

According to a recent survey, 86 percent of the labour force in India are in the informal economy and are potentially a reservoir of green workers, if they are trained and supported by policy measures. A proposed modular employable skills initiative targeting less-educated people without employ-able skills, workers who have acquired skills informally and Industrial Training Institute (ITI) graduates is an important step in the right direction, which has to be implemented effectively.

Indonesia

The Presidential Decree No. 5 of 2006 regarding National Energy Policy aimed to increase the use of renewable energies. The challenges for the green economy in Indonesia are:

• Land use changes in the forestry sector – emissions increase from deforestation, peat oxidisation (emissions from organic soils), peat fires and for-est burning;

• Energy sector – emissions of CO2 from electricity and petroleum operations, transportation, commercial and industrial operations, and fugitive emissions (leaks and other unintended or irregular release of gases);

•Agriculture sector – emissions from rice cultivation, fertilisation, biomass, and manure management; and

• Waste sector – emissions of greenhouse gases originating from industrial wastewater treatment and discharge, domestic wastewater treatment and discharge, open burning solid waste, and unmanaged waste disposal sites.

There seem to be few linkages between the private sector and education and skills development, especially in terms of green issues; these links need to be improved to help fill the demand for green skills.

Mali

The agricultural sector is the backbone of Mali’s economy: it contributes over 40 percent of national GDP and provides primary liveli-hood for more than 80 percent of the country’s population. The performance of the agricultural sector and its capacity to adapt to climate threat are the key challenges in the future for the economy of Mali. The drive towards greening of Mali’s economy hinges on how the agriculture sector responds resiliently to climate change and environmental degradation such as desertification and loss of soil fertility. Strategies or policies geared towards greening the economy are not in place and the term ”green job” is not commonly known.

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Box 4.1 (continued)

Greening the economy is seen more as a burden rather than an opportunity. There is some recognition of the potential in this respect, which needs to be further promoted.

The main concern about Mali clearly is adaptation within the agricultural sector. Actions on climate change are uncoordinated and a national strategic framework that defines Mali’s vision is lacking. Despite Mali’s vulnerability, an analysis of policies, strategies and key development programmes in Mali (GPRS II, PDES, LOA etc.) show that the impacts of climate change are not receiving due priority.

Philippines

The Philippines, an archipelago of more than 7,000 islands with a population of over 90 million, is on the UNDP’s shortlist of most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change. The country is a low emitter of GHGs, contributing only 0.3 percent of the global share in 2004.The Philippines has suffered destructive episodes of El Niño droughts and La Niña floods. It is estimated that about 43 percent of the country is likely to be affected by climate change-induced drought, 20 percent by floods, and 11 percent by landslides. The negative impacts of climate change include water short-ages, decreases in agricultural productivity, infectious diseases due to heat stress, and residents in low-lying coastal areas becoming ”climate refugees”. Coral bleaching, disappearance of small islands, and a decline in livestock production are other likely negative effects. The agricultural sector is the main focus of the Government’s climate change programmes.

There are many official declarations as to the country’s full alignment with global aspirations to build a climate-friendly world. Many environmental and climate change related laws have been enacted. However, there is a large gap between the enactment and enforcement of the laws. There is also a need to push more vigorously for sector-by-sector greening of the economy, including dense urban and rural poor settlements.

South Africa

The long history of structural inequalities remains an overwhelming burden for society and economy in South Africa. Key challenges and priorities have been identified. The general lack of skills in many sectors, especially of scientists, engineers, technicians, and training and development profes-sionals, who must lead the transition to a greener economy, is a major constraint. A major challenge is to decarbonise the economy, since South Af-rica ranks eighth globally in terms of per capita emissions. The economy is dependent on coal-based energy with large reserves of coal in the country. Solar and other renewable sources are so far seen as mere pilot experiments.

South Africa is a semi-arid country, and lack of water is a limiting factor to agricultural and rural development. Water quality and availability is closely linked to change in land use, regional planning, economic growth and protection of biodiversity. An integrated approach to the management of land and water use is essential. South Africa is at the beginning of the greening and low-carbon economy curve and is yet to experience a significant struc-tural shift in the economy or labour markets. The momentum is gathering, though, and the policy environment is changing in a positive direction.

Thailand

The Thailand Tenth National Economics and Social Development Plan (2007–2011) mentions a serious overuse of natural resources, citing the destruc-tion of 10.7 million hectares of forests in 40 years. Forests now cover only one-third of the land compared to two-thirds in 1945. The seafood catch has been reduced to one-third and coral and sea grass conditions have deteriorated. Biodiversity is rapidly being destroyed by human activity with an increase in the rate of the extinction of species. Population growth and increased consumption have put pressure on air and water quality. Waste vol-umes are increasing faster than the capacity to dispose of them. Harmful substances have seeped into the environment and have contaminated the food chain. Thailand also relies heavily on imported fossil fuels for energy and transport needs. The increase in demand will mean that Thailand will face supply constraints as well as the risks of high GHG emissions.

The Thai Government has pledged to implement a green policy. Action plans have been developed by ministries, such as, the 15-Year Alternative Energy Plan and the DAEDE Four-Year Action Plan (2008–2011). These plans promote green skills development for use of new technologies. However, effective implementation in a coordinated manner remains a problem. The country still has no database on green skills and green jobs.

Uganda

Uganda, like many other developing countries, has not effectively responded to the challenges of climate change. Inaction by the majority of institu-tions mandated to protect the environment has led to increased vulnerability of people. The National Environment Management Authority lists envi-ronmental challenges in exponential population growth, biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, deforestation, soil erosion and degradation, pollution of air and water, and poor waste management in urban areas.

According to the Government’s 2007 National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA), climate change adaptation and mitigation priorities for Uganda include addressing land degradation and resource management, strengthening meteorological services, water and sanitation, water for ir-rigation, drought adaptation, pests and disease control, and climate change and development planning. Challenges associated with achieving these include lack of human and financial resources, unclear mandates of institutions involved, high transaction costs involved in Climate Development Mechanism (CDM) decision-making, and lack of committed leadership.

The overall direction of Uganda’s economy will determine the nature of greening shifts. The country has plans for making the transition from a high-carbon to a low-carbon economy, which, if implemented effectively, will result in employment opportunities in various sectors. Opportunities exist, which must be realised, to reorient Uganda’s economy to support sustainable development and build long-term resilience.

Source: Adapted from ILO. 2011a, Part 2, Summary of Case Studies. The background country reports are available at: http://www.ilo.org/skills/what/projects/lang--en/WCMS_144268/index.htm


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ILO’s Skills and Employability Department, in coopera-tion with the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP), launched in 2008 a global investigation of skill needs for greener economies. Investi-gations were carried out in 21 countries that represented 60 percent of the world population and about the same proportion of global GDP and was responsible for about half of global CO2 emissions. The countries involved in the study were: Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, France, Germany, India, Indone-sia, Mali, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, South Af-rica, Spain, Thailand, Uganda, the United Kingdom and the United States. The study drew on other collaborative work that preceded it (see UNEP et al.: 2008.).

The country studies were intended to reveal whether the po-tential for new and better jobs in greener industries is being realised, and if so, how. The synthesis of the 21 country stud-ies attempted to look at the policy contexts at the country level. It examined the state of green structural changes and their implications for skills development, and if and how oc-cupations changed with the greening of the economies. This chapter draws substantially on this recently published synthe-sis of the collaborative research (ILO: 2011a).

Excerpts from statement of the policy context in the country studies from the developing regions underscore the impact of climate change in the countries and the possibilities and priori-ties for action. The selected excerpts are presented in Box 4.1.

The policy context, and climate change impact and priori-ties, summarised from statements of national teams in the selected developing countries, are expectedly uneven. These were focused on general issues of the green econo-my, rather than the rural economy and the agriculture sec-tor. A number of points illustrated by these statements, as listed below, merits attention.

• The majority of the people of the developing countries live in the rural areas, dependent on agriculture for employment and livelihood, and the agriculture sector and people’s livelihood in rural areas will bear the brunt of the negative consequences of climate change. Yet the recognition of the impact on agriculture and rural people are uneven at best and barely noted in some cases. There appears to be a focus on carbon emissions

as the problem, influenced by an emphasis originat-

ing in industrial development and industrial countries,

which is ultimately a major source of the problem and

the solution. But this appears to have distracted atten-

tion from the immediate impact on lives of hundreds of

millions of people by the proximate effects of climate

change manifested in pressure on land and water and

weather volatility. Admittedly, the ILO-sponsored study

on green skills and jobs has emphasised the organised

sector of the economy. The relative neglect of the infor-

mal economy, agriculture-related activities and the rural

people remains a serious problem at the national and

international level.

• The numbers and proportions affected in rural areas,

as well as the potential for action with high impact

on people’s well-being, demand a high priority to ru-

ral economy and the rural people in considering the

responses to the impact of climate change. Both the

numbers in the workforce and the place of the rural

economy within the national economy in the develop-

ing countries, albeit it is changing, offer possibilities that

remain unexplored for adaptation to climate change,

mitigation of the consequences, and indeed the pos-

sibilities of preventing some of the negative effects.

Again the potential, needs and opportunities appear to

be inadequately reflected in many of the expressions of

impact and priorities (see the next section below).

• In many instances, even when the impacts and the

need for action are recognised and policy, goals and

objectives for transition to the green economy are stat-

ed, actual progress in implementation and the political

will and mobilisation of support are insufficient. Capaci-

ties and relevant skills for the transition to the green

economy, overall and particularly in the rural communi-

ties, are a major constraint in most countries. Assessing

the situation and needs and developing strategies and

planning actions for this purpose, for which the ILO col-

laborative study is a significant step, show some bright

spots and many weaknesses (see below).

The next section of this chapter turns to the issues of

greening rural transformation – sustainability in agriculture

and rural economy – which, as we have emphasised, de-

serve greater attention than so far given.

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4.2 Greening Rural Transformation – Sustain-ability in Agriculture and Rural Economy

There is a general agreement, at least rhetorically, since the

Rio Earth Summit in 1992, that the agriculture and envi-

ronment agendas are inseparable. It is generally accepted

that agricultural development programmes will not suc-

ceed without sustainable use of natural resources – water,

forests, soil, crops and animal diversity and the ecosystem

as a whole. It is also beginning to be realised, though the

full policy and action implications in different contexts

have to be worked out, that agricultural development has

to be seen as an integral part of a broader rural transfor-

mation agenda. The web of interconnection between the

degradation of natural resources, undermining of agricul-

tural production, continuing unsustainable use of natural

resources, and increased vulnerability to risk of people

requires that an integrated view is taken of agricultural and

rural development and responses to climate change. The

greening of rural transformation, focusing on an integrated

approach to sustainably embracing agriculture and other

aspects of the rural economy, has to be the overall frame-

work for responses to climate change.

Agriculture is the main user of land and water, a major

source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), the main

cause of human-induced conversion of natural ecosystems

and the loss of biodiversity (see Box 4.2). The sector with

the highest worldwide greenhouse gas emissions, which

threaten the temperature balance of the planet, is energy

generation. It releases over a quarter of total emissions (26

percent), followed by manufacturing at 19 percent. Agri-

culture accounts for around 14 percent emissions globally,

but combined with forestry (17 percent), they add up to

almost one-third of total global emissions (International

Energy Agency: 2008).

The sources and effects of greenhouse emissions vary

among developing countries. The forestry-related emis-

sions arise from both over-harvesting of timber and low

rate of forest regeneration, reducing CO2 absorption. In

the Philippines, the proportion of land covered by for-

est has come down from 70 percent around 1900 to 6

percent today. In Bangladesh, Mali and Uganda, the use

of charcoal and firewood for domestic use and making

bricks for construction have resulted in rapid denuding

of forest cover. Emissions attributed to agriculture are

Greening Rural Transformation – Sustainability in Agriculture and Rural Economy

Source: Adapted from http://environment.about.com/od/globalwarming/a/greenhouse.htm

Box 4.2 The Greenhouse Gases

What causes the greenhouse effect? Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is de-flected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet's surface and is reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation. The heat caused by infrared radiation is absorbed by ”greenhouse gases” such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth's atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet. This phenomenon is what scientists call the ”greenhouse effect”. Without it, scientists estimate that the average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How do humans contribute to the greenhouse effect? While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on earth, there really can be too much of a good thing. The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more green-house gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

•Burning natural gas, coal and oil – including gasoline for automobile engines – raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

•Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.

• Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.

• Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and ”global warming” that is currently under way.

• Population growth is another major factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held which gradually increases the temperature of the Earth's surface and the air in the lower atmosphere. During the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit). Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature will in-crease by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius, depending on mitigating actions taken. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is of the view that the increase in global average temperature should be limited to a maximum of 2°C to avoid irreversible negative impacts.

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considerably higher than the world average in some large developing countries. The rate is estimated to be 21 percent of the national total in China, arising mainly from rice farming. In Brazil agriculture is responsible for 57 percent of the total national emissions (ILO: 2011a, pp.16-17; see also Box 4.2).

In developing countries, agriculture is a key entry point for interventions in environmental protection. The large ”environmental footprint” of agriculture also means that there are many avenues for environmental action in this area. Identifying the opportunities and getting the right incentives in place for the stakeholders to behave respon-sibly towards sustainability are the first steps. Long-term support and capacity-building to improve natural resource management and coping with increased climate risks are also priorities. Strategies and actions have to give due im-portance to agriculture and forestry in adapting to climate change and mitigating their negative effects (World Bank: 2008, p.199).

Adapting to and mitigating the effects

Even if emissions of GHG are stabilised at current levels or reduced somewhat, adaptation of agricultural practices is urgent because the developing countries are already sub-ject to many adverse effects in varying degree. What does adapting in the agriculture sector mean and how can it be encouraged and supported?

Farmers in many countries are already adapting and are ready to do so, when the support and incentives are avail-able. A survey of practices in 11 African countries show that farmers are planting different varieties of the same crop, changing the planting calendar, and modifying prac-tices to adapt to a shorter growing season. But in many other countries, more than a third of the households have not changed their farming practices, though they have been aware of climate variability or the threats of higher temperatures. Farmers report of barriers in the form of lack of credit and access to water (World Bank: 2008, p.201; Maddison: 2006).

In developing countries, farmers, especially smallholders, will need public sector support in adapting to the climate effects. These supports can be through crop and livestock

insurance, safety nets, research and adoption of research

results on new pest and drought-resistant crops and dry

land farming (African Development Bank et al.: 2007). The

cost of constructing and modifying irrigation schemes

needed to adapt to reduced water flow in river systems,

such as those dependent on glacial melt, can run into bil-

lions of dollars.

Developing countries are responsible for about 80 percent

of global emissions of GHG from agriculture in contrast to

emissions from fossil fuel use and industry, for which the

richer countries bear the main burden of responsibility. Ag-

riculture in developing countries is also a major contribu-

tor to reduction in natural carbon sequestration or storage

(thus reducing emissions) in soil, pastures and forests. This

loss happens through change in land use pattern resulting

in the loss of soil organic matter in cropland and conver-

sion of forests to farming (World Bank: 2008, ”Focus F”).

Mitigation through carbon trading

The possibility of trading carbon emissions under inter-

national agreement through the Clean Development

Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol is emerging. This

arrangement can benefit farmers and rural communities in

developing countries which can use land and agricultural

practices that help store carbon, instead of being released

to the atmosphere. The major hurdle to benefiting farmers

and rural people are that the protocol so far has a limited

coverage of afforestation and reforestation in addition to

preventing depletion of existing forests through agricul-

ture-related encroachment. Deforestation is the villain that

creates almost a fifth of global GHG emissions (World Bank:

2008). The knowledge and understanding of the protocol

and working out how it can benefit poor farmers and rural

communities still remain a problem (see Box 4.3).

Broader economic and social adjustments

Transition to a greener economy focusing on agriculture

and rural areas has to be part of broader long-term struc-

tural change in the economy. Socially responsible restruc-

turing measures have to be adopted which do not punish

further the poor and the disadvantaged in rural and urban

areas. The costs of adjustments and how these are shared

recognising prevailing inequalities and disparities have to

be examined and public understanding and consensus

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has to be developed about policies. Attention is often fo-

cused on extractive industries and energy generation from

fossil fuels and manufacturing industries as the source of

the problem and areas of action in search of solutions.

Clearly, these cannot be separated from issues pertaining

to agriculture and rural areas, including those related to

land and water use, livestock raising, forestry, and preserv-

ing biodiversity.

The move to renewable energies, clean energy, energy

efficiency, green manufacturing as well as the green rural

economy is intricately linked to agriculture and the rural

economy. Climate friendly agriculture including more

organic farming; livestock, fish and poultry raising that

is sensitive to climate stress; preservation and growth of

forests; and management of land and water will create

new economic opportunities and jobs in both rural and

urban areas. Those who take advantage of the new jobs

may not all be those who are already disadvantaged and

affected adversely by climate effects. The disadvantaged

have to be identified and specifically targeted for as-

sistance including training, retraining and upgrading of

skills. Public dialogue and consensus building are again

necessary. So is sharing roles and responsibility by the

government at different levels, communities, civil society,

workers and employers in the private sector, for success

in the complex endeavour to reshape the economy, build

skills and capacity and match skills and jobs (ILO: 2011a,

pp.55-56; UNEP et al.: 2008).

Green transition and stages of development

There is a strong relationship between the stage of devel-

opment and the progress of green structural change as

illustrated by the scope and pace of transition to the green

economy among countries. The review of experiences

highlighted in the recent collaborative interagency studies

shows this link (ILO: 2011a; Table 4.1).

In the developed countries, the green restructuring of the

economy has been going on for at least three decades. For

example, Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, the United

Kingdom and the United States have witnessed a gradual

change that has been driven by a combination of automa-

tion, relocation to reduce costs, developments in labour

market policies, major changes in the composition of the

industrial sector, the growth of the services sector and an

increase in service intensity in other sectors.

The broad-ranging restructuring since the 1970s has been

initially driven by environmental regulations followed by

fiscal policies and incentives to promote green behaviour

among enterprises and consumers. Awareness raising and

Box 4.3 What is Carbon Trading?

Carbon is an element stored in fossil fuels such as coal and oil. When these fuels are burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) is released and acts as what is called a ”greenhouse gas”. Carbon trading is a market based mechanism for helping mitigate the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. Carbon trading markets can bring buyers and sellers of carbon credits together with standardised rules of trade. Any entity, typically a business, that emits CO2 to the atmos-phere may have an interest or may be required by law to balance their emissions through mechanism of carbon sequestration or storing. Entities that manage forest or agricultural land might sell carbon credits based on the accumulation of carbon in their forest trees or agricultural soils.

The carbon trade came about in response to the Kyoto Protocol. Signed in Kyoto, Japan, by some 180 countries in December 1997, the Kyoto Protocol calls for 38 industrialised countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions between the years 2008 to 2012 to levels that are 5.2% lower than those of 1990.

The idea behind carbon trading is quite similar to the trading of securities or commodities in a marketplace. Carbon would be given an economic value, allowing people, companies or nations to trade it. If a nation bought carbon, it would be buying the rights to burn it, and a nation selling carbon would be giving up its rights to burn it. The value of the carbon would be based on the ability of the country owning the carbon to store it or to pre-vent it from being released into the atmosphere. The better one is at storing it, the more one can charge for it.

The market would facilitate the buying and selling of the rights to emit greenhouse gases. The industrialised nations for which reducing emissions is a daunting task could buy the emission rights from another nation whose industries do not produce as much of these gases.

Carbon trading seems like a win-win situation: greenhouse gas emissions may be reduced while some countries reap economic benefit. Critics of the idea suspect that some countries will exploit the trading system and the consequences will be negative. Carbon Trade Watch, an independent research collective, argues that it places disproportionate emphasis on individual lifestyles and carbon footprints, distracting attention from the wider, systemic changes and collective political action that needs to be taken to tackle climate change. Debate over this idea arises because it involves finding a bal-ance between profit, equality and ecological concerns.

Source: Adapted from http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/04/060404.asp#axzz1dLsed72v

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social mobilisation by the growing ”green movement” have encouraged this process. This process continues with a greater emphasis on innovation and growth with the market serving as the driver of change. There is a long way to go before general public acceptance of the precepts of the green economy is achieved.

Among the middle income countries and those indus-trialised more recently, Costa Rica, Estonia, the Republic of Korea, South Africa and Spain were included among the 21 countries covered by the collaborative case stud-ies on green jobs conducted by ILO and CEDEFOP. These countries, like the industrialised countries, also have been influenced by technological and market factors in their response to climate change. However, the attempt to articulate national policies including legislation and regulations are the main forces of change in these countries which are at the beginning of the greening curve towards a low-carbon economy. They are yet to experience a significant ”green” structural shift in their economies and labour markets.

In many of the developing countries out of the sample of countries, including Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand, it was judged that ”green shift” remains at an early stage. A more significant transition towards a green economy on a wider scale in these countries would require systemic efforts on several fronts. These include continuing the work on policy de-velopment and refinement, effective implementation of policy, law enforcement, and adapting to and adopting green technologies. In Mali and Uganda, green structural shifts remain at the embryonic stage, with green policy and regulations still to be accorded a high priority in pub-lic agenda (see Box 4.1 and ILO: 2011a).

In short, the priority for transition to a green economy is to combat climate change and environmental degra-dation and remove their negative environmental, eco-nomic and social impacts. This transition in developing countries requires an integrated view of urban and rural areas, with a special attention to agriculture and related economic activities, rural areas, and rural people. This is necessary because the rural people constitute the majority who are affected and they also can contribute to the solutions. Many developing countries, in spite of

having formulated policies, laws and regulations, falter

in implementation and fall short in developing skills and

capacities that are demanded by the green economy

and green employment. This latter question is discussed

in the following section.

4.3 Skills and Capacity Needs for Sustainable Rural Transformation

A central task in moving towards a sustainable greener

economy with rural transformation as the key compo-

nent is to create new skills and capacities and redefine

and upgrade existing ones. This capacity building has

to be done to facilitate new investments, adopt new

technologies and create new jobs supporting the sus-

tainable rural economy, mitigating the effects of and

adapting to climate change. The message of the Green

Jobs report ( UNEP et al.: 2008), reaffirmed by the Skills

for Green Jobs study (ILO: 2011a), is that the efforts to

tackle climate change could result in the creation of

millions of new ”green jobs” in the coming decades in

developing countries.

What are ”green jobs”?

”Green jobs” can be defined as jobs that reduce the

environmental impact of enterprises and economic

sectors to levels that are sustainable. This defini-

tion covers work in agriculture, industry, services

and administrat ion that contr ibutes to preser v-

ing or restor ing the qual i ty of the environment

while also meeting the criteria for decent work –

adequate wages, safe conditions, workers’ r ights,

social dialogue and social protection. It also covers

activities related to both mitigation of, and adapta-

tion to, climate change. This working definition im-

plies, in its inclusivity and breadth, that most jobs

have the potential of becoming greener. Over time,

as the transition to a green economy progresses,

what is considered a green job now may not be so

regarded in the future. The understanding of green

jobs a lso var ies among countr ies and contex ts .

Ultimately, countries have to articulate own defini-

tions applying agreed criteria and set benchmarks

for practices considered green or non-green (UNEP

et al.: 2008; ILO: 2011a).

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Drivers of change in skill needs

Research and review of country experience presented

in the Green Jobs report (UNEP et al.: 2008) and the

Skills for Green Jobs report (ILO: 2011a) suggest that

there are four main determinants of change in skills

requirements: (i) physical changes in the environ-

ment itself ; (ii) environmental policy and regulation;

(iii) technology and innovation; and (iv) changes in

markets, prices, and consumer habits. These drivers,

or forces of change, are interrelated but their relative

importance differs among countries.

In developed countries consumer behaviour and market

forces have become major influences in shaping change

in the economy, and thus, in skills and jobs. In develop-

ing countries where environmental changes are directly

impacting peoples’ life and livelihood, this situation is

prompting development of policies and regulations. This

is a stage which the industrialised countries had passed

through already. However, better-informed policy-making

and adjustments and refining of policies are a continuing

task in all countries, developed and developing alike. De-

velopment and adaptation of appropriate technology and

innovations are also critical factors in countries at different

stages of development, though the criteria of appropriate-

ness would vary. Technology and innovation also provide

market signals, trigger investments, and create demand

for skills and influence job profiles in both developing and

industrialised countries.

Technology that is sensitive and responsive to the goal of

green transition is an important driver of change in skill

needs in its own right. This is so because of the critical

role of skills in research and development in appropriate

technologies as well as the skills in adaptation, adoption,

transfer, diffusion and maintenance of new technologies

in both developing and developed countries. In all these

functions, the availability of relevant skills is decisive for

success, but they are often in short supply.

Broadly speaking, the changing natural environment

imposes greater demands on adaptation and the built

environment creates a strong demand for mitigation

measures. As the changing physical environment tends

to loom larger in developing countries, especially in the

rural areas, the relative importance of adaptation skills

is correspondingly greater there than in the developed

world (ILO: 2011a, p.12).

The need for new and upgraded skills is likely to be in-

creasingly pressing across countries and regions. Particular

skills needed for green jobs in particular locations and sec-

tors have to be identified, pinpointing where occupations

will change and where new ones will come into being.

Working out effective strategies for developing skills will

help countries prepare for change across regions of the

world and across the development spectrum.

Skill shortages

The analysis of countries’ experience revealed that skill

shortages already constrain the transition to a greener

economy – in terms of preparing for some new occupa-

tions and in terms of changing the skill profile of a large

number of existing occupations. A useful definition of skill

shortage is:

...a genuine lack of adequately skilled individuals available

in the accessible labour market with the type of skill being

sought and which leads to a difficulty in recruitment. A skill

shortage characterises the situation where employers are

unable to recruit staff with the skills they are looking for at

the going rate of pay. This could result from basic lack of

people (when unemployment levels are very low), signifi-

cant geographical imbalances in supply (sufficient skilled

people in the labour market but not easily accessible to

available jobs), or a genuine shortfall in the number of ap-

propriately skilled individuals – either at new entrant level,

or for higher level skilled occupations (Strietska-Ilina: 2008).

As part of ILO’s Global Green Jobs initiative, 11 countries

in Asia and the Pacific are involved in a collaboration to

encourage governments, employers and workers in gen-

erating coherent policies and effective programmes that

will support a green economy, with green jobs and decent

work for all (ILO: 2011).

The methodology to examine the current and future num-

bers of green jobs in a developing country calls for a system-

atic approach in assessing direct green jobs and indirect jobs

that contribute to low-carbon development and environmental

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sustainability. An exercise undertaken in Bangladesh suggests

that activities consistent with environmentally sustainable

growth can support several million jobs (Table 4.1). Sectors

such as sustainable agriculture, sustainable forestry and waste

management show promise for creating large numbers

of green jobs. However, some of the environment-related

jobs created thus far are not ”decent” due to the widespread

practice of paying low wages, the very low participation of

women, high wage disparities between men and women

and poor or hazardous working conditions. This initial exercise

also significantly admits that it was not possible to obtain an

estimate for the share of green jobs in agriculture and forestry,

which account for more than half of total employment in the

country and presumably have the highest potential for ex-

panding green jobs.

The 21 countries study on skills for green jobs also at-

tempted to examine needs and prospects for green jobs.

Highlights of observation from some of the developing

countries are noted below.

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, the National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA)

for Global Environmental Management identified capacity

needs at professional and technical level in respect of climate

change analysts, environmental restoration planners, environ-

mental certification specialists, environmental economists,

industrial ecologists, water resource specialists, water/waste-

water engineers and geospatial information scientists and

technologists (ILO: 2011a, p.216). In the context of greening

the economy, skills development policies and strategies in

Bangladesh are not aligned or linked to macroeconomic and

environmental policies and no estimates of likely green jobs

or a strategy to create these exist at present, as mentioned

above (ILO: 2011a, p.217).

Brazil

In Brazil, the National Plan on Climate Change states that

opportunities for green jobs exist in energy, transport,

construction, ecological planning and industry. These can

be realised through use of solar power and other renew-

able sources, adoption of an integrated planning system

allowing efficiencies of energy use with efficient equip-

ment, adoption of recycling practices, and capture and

storage of carbon. No specific mention is made of the rural

or agricultural sectors. It is noted that the skills supply for

sustainable forest management activities is vital to the

sustainability of the Amazon, reducing deforestation and

the creation of conditions for sustainable use of forest re-

sources. The need is emphasised for undertaking in-depth

n.p. – Not possible to obtain an estimate for the share of green jobs due to data limitations.n.a. – Not available.Source: ”Looking at the Relationship between Environment, Economy and Jobs in Bangladesh”, a study by ILO/GHK, April 2010, cited in ILO, 2011.

Table 4.1 An Exercise in Estimating Creation of Green Jobs in Bangladesh

Economic sectors Core environment related jobs Direct green jobs Indirect environment

related Total jobs

Sustainable agriculture 41,548 n.p. 47,482 89,030

Sustainable and participatory forestry 28,813 n.p. 28,121 56,934

Sustainable energy 18,823 18,823 50,561 69,384

Waste management and recycling 189,180 n.p. 212,753 401,933

Collection purification/distribution of water 8,441 n.a. n.a. n.a.

Climate adaptation activities 1,726,755 616,052 967,849 1,583,901

Manufacturing and energy efficiency 10,934 10,934 21,472 32,406

Sustainable transportation 178,510 178,510 54,049 232,559

Sustainable construction 1,340,000 536,000–670,000 1,416,364 2,019,364

Total 3,543,004 1,427,319 2,798,651 4,485,511

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studies to understand how skills will be modified, by an analysis of technological impacts and procedures intro-duced through production processes as well as discussion of the definition of green economic activity and specific skills and qualifications relating to it (ibid., pp.230-231).

China

In 2007, China established the National Leading Group to Address Climate Change which aims to:

•Cut energy consumption per unit of GDP by 20 percent between 2005 and 2010;

•Increase the use of renewable energy to 10 percent of total energy consumption by 2010; and

•Increase forest cover to 20 percent by 2010.

As China moves towards a green economy, industries which have been historically sources of employment for millions will become obsolete, requiring vocational training and skill upgrading of workers on a huge scale. The development of low-carbon industries including the desulphurization indus-try is likely to create over 1 million jobs between 2005 and 2020. The cross-country study observes that China will need to focus training on environmental management and protec-tion skills in eco-friendly technologies, including those which support renewable energy sectors, energy efficiency and recycling. This will require: (i) surveys of employees and em-ployers on green skills; (ii) quantitative projections of employ-ment based upon appropriate econometric models; and (iii) qualitative analysis of green skills (ibid., pp.237-48).

India

In India, the 2008 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) outlined a national strategy that comprised eight national ”missions” on – solar energy, energy efficiency, sus-tainable habitat, water, sustaining the Himalayan eco-system, green India, sustainable agriculture, and strategic knowledge for climate change. These missions provide an organisational structure for formulating policy and priorities, bringing the main stakeholders together, mobilising resources, guiding implementation and monitoring progress.

India has around a fifth of its area under forests. Despite the pressure on land, the target is to increase the area un-der forest from 23 percent to 33 percent.

The Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change is

engaged in the identification of skills gaps, capacity build-

ing on climate change, and promotion of research and

development. A national green skills development strat-

egy is yet to be developed, though some steps have been

taken to address the skills gap. In 2007, the Prime Minister

pledged the opening of 1,600 new industrial training

institutes (ITIs) and polytechnics, 10,000 new vocational

schools, and 50,000 new Skill Development Centres. These

together would produce over 10 million youth equipped

with vocational training annually – a four-fold increase

from today’s level.

Little data are currently available on green skills develop-

ment and the information that exists is scattered, with

no central database in India. A sample survey has been

proposed. Further comprehensive research is required to

study the impact of green jobs on the environment and

climate (ibid., pp.322-334).

Indonesia

In Indonesia, an instrument to forecast skill needs includ-

ing a feedback mechanism does not exist. Technical capac-

ity building and managerial training has been provided

to authorities at national and local government level, and

in publicly funded sectors and universities. The training

activities proposed by the National Council for Climate

Change need to be acted upon by government agencies,

private enterprises and community organisations. Sustain-

ability training as part of the strategy to develop skills for

green jobs should be embedded in education systems and

training at all levels. The ”green” awareness in Indonesia

is still emerging and green skills responses are at an early

stage of development. A structured and formal green skills

response is yet to be developed from the policy and plan-

ning perspective and from the point of view of the end-

user (ibid., pp.335-344).

Mali

The Government of Mali considers agriculture as the back-

bone of national socioeconomic development; however, this

is also the most vulnerable sector to climate change impacts.

Major potentials exist for increasing the number of green jobs,

both in the development of new occupations and new skills

for existing occupations. Economic sectors that need green


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skills are renewable energy, agriculture, waste management,

construction, forestry and carbon finance.

In agriculture a key issue is appropriate water manage-ment systems for both surface and underground water. New ways of raising livestock have become urgent as no-madic lifestyle and the seasonal movement of people with their livestock are becoming more difficult to practice. Sustainable fish farming practices are in demand. Further-more, ”adding value” to primary resources is essential, for example, by developing or adopting technologies which use agricultural by-products for energy generation.

Biofuel from jatropha plant is becoming a popular replace-ment for imported fossil fuel. The need to expand this indus-try has given rise to new skills gaps for nursery growers, pro-ducers and jatropha oil motor operators, and for developing its use at a local level. It is also important to train operators of machinery (agricultural, transport etc.), in adapting and main-taining these, for the use of jatropha biofuel. The agricultural meteorological network in Mali has a major skills gap. In a situation of high weather unpredictability, increasing and im-proving the skills in this area is a priority.

In Mali the greening of the labour market has not yet been taken as a priority. Assessing and planning for skills needs are yet to be addressed systematically by the national au-thorities (ibid., pp.345-354).

Philippines

There is a wide gap between legislation and the imple-mentation of environmental reforms. A plethora of laws including two recent ones have been adopted, which should be especially relevant for green rural transforma-tion. One of the acts known as ”Mainstreaming Climate Change into Government Policy Formulations – Estab-lishing the Framework Strategy and Programme on Climate Change” of 2009 provides for the creation of a Climate Change Commission headed by the President to serve as the country’s sole policy-making body on climate change. It aims to coordinate climate change related programmes. The other recent legislation is the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010 for the development and promotion of organic farming in the country. The intent of these laws needs to be fulfilled with proper implementation.

Currently there is a shortage of decent jobs for one

million new annual labour entrants, the estimated 3

million unemployed, over 6 million officially counted

as underemployed, four million ”unpaid family work-

ers”, and over 12 million working less than 40 hours

a week. The green restructuring of the Phil ippine

economy could have a positive impact on the total

employment scenario, because of the generally la-

bour-intensive nature of green jobs. Examples of the

potentials include the shift from current chemical-

based farming to organic agriculture, the growth

of the renewable energy sector, reforestation pro-

grammes, and the expansion of the recycling sector.

An army of agricultural extension personnel, with training

and technical support, needs to provide knowledge on

agricultural technology and climate change adaptation

and risk reduction to millions of farmers. There is a need

to increase the agri-business and entrepreneurial skills of

farmers to prepare them for the shift to organic and sus-

tainable farming with retraining in, for example, methods

of composting to produce organic fertilisers and in the

selection of sturdy seeds that can withstand weeds and

pests invasions.

There is currently no data from the National Statistics Of-

fice on the number of establishments going green or skills

shortage or workers displaced by enterprises that have gone

green. The newly created Climate Change Commission could

provide the lead in this respect (ibid., pp.355-364).

South Africa

The Medium Term Strategic Framework for 2009-2014 to

address climate change has two strategic priorities: the first

aims at strengthening the skills and human resource base in

general, and the second relates to sustainable resource man-

agement and use with a specific reference to green jobs. It is

necessary to articulate and align the skills development focus

and the greening focus. The overall national policy for skills

development lacks explicit focus on greening. One of the

areas of acute skills shortages is the education and training

sector itself, with deficiencies in many aspects including the

capacity to promote green skills.

Greening initiatives are in demand in various sectors

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with the increased awareness of climate change, thus

creating jobs that were not formerly needed. The coun-

try has large numbers of unskilled jobs in agriculture

and construction. Workers in these sectors need to learn

to dispose of materials and chemicals correctly, along

with efficient use of energy and water. In agriculture,

specialised skills areas in demand are related to manag-

ing irrigation methods and water efficiency; expertise to

select proper technology, skills in using and maintain-

ing the technology appropriately, and skills in market

assessment and making business plan for investment

and marketing (ibid., pp.376-388).

Thailand

The National Economic and Social Development Plan

(2007-2011) of Thailand does not present a clear or

specific strategy on skills development for greening the

economy. However, with increased concern in general

about climate change, new green competencies and

skills have been promoted by government agencies

and the private sector. For example, the Ministry of Ag-

riculture organised training courses for the production

and use of bio-fertilisers and better practices in terms

of harvesting and packaging products to sell to both

domestic and overseas markets. The Department of Al-

ternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DAEDE)

has supported research, and has developed plan for

training rural people, on generating and using alterna-

tive energy, such as, biomass solar energy, hydro energy

and wind energy. Thailand expects to implement World

Bank-assisted biomass energy projects in 340 communi-

ties, as well as wind turbines and solar power projects

creating new jobs across rural communities.

The Ministry of Agriculture has been orienting extension

and training for farmers towards addressing sustainability

issues. Agriculturists, agro-industries and rural businesses

have been involved with local government in promoting

the use of bio-fertiliser, reducing environmental risks to lo-

cal communities. Agricultural officials went to sub-districts

and served as mentors to farmers in adopting new prac-

tices (ibid., pp.399-406).

Uganda

Under the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE)

auspices, a multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary National Climate Change Steering Committee has been established in Uganda to coordinate the implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN-FCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. It advises the line Ministries on Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) and imple-mentation of the National Adaptation Programme of Ac-tion (NAPA) under UNFCCC, prepared in 2007.

The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) estimates that, if deforestation continues at its current rate, Uganda will lose all of its forested land by 2050, agriculture will not be viable for most farmers and biodiversity would be affected severely. With over 80 percent of Ugandans currently employed directly in the agriculture sector, this would have a crucial impact on the total economy. The major sectors for green occupations are in agriculture, energy, water and environment, forestry, manufacturing industries, transport, and trade. In agriculture, there is a need for soil scientists, plant and animal breeders and pathologists who will enable maximum agricultural productivity amid climate change sce-narios. Meteorology specialists are needed who can use and disseminate satellite and climate related data. Environmental impact assessors are needed. Solar technicians are needed for the development of solar technology, including installation and maintenance. There is also great interest in implementing greening practices. These include sound soil and water con-servation practices; use of better natural soil fertility measures such as crop and grazing rotation; natural pest/parasite and disease control approaches; increased use of organic matter; and the effective use of livestock waste to preserve soil fertil-ity (ibid., pp.407-419).

The research project on skills for green jobs, building on earlier work of ILO and others explored the need for skills and capacities to improve productivity, employ-ment growth and development, focusing especially on the imperatives of sustainability. The perspective of the green jobs study was not necessarily rural areas and ru-ral people. But, the interface of green development and tackling poverty in developing countries, and skills and jobs in that context required attention to rural people and rural areas. The demographic and spatial concerns and the importance of agriculture and non-farm ac-tivities in the economy merited a sharper rural focus than was evident. The summary of the statements from


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selected developing countries regarding needs and

demands for skills for green development presented above suggest at least three conclusions.

•The needs and potentials for agriculture, the rural economy, rural people and rural areas are underes-timated in the discourse on green development of countries. In the same vein, the potential for contri-bution to green development of agriculture, rural economy and rural people are also denied appro-priate attention. There appears to be a disconnect between the proportions out of the national total in developing countries of rural people, the direct and indirect impact of climate change on rural people, and the role agriculture and the rural economy can play in adaptation and mitigation strategies, on the one hand, and the diagnostics regarding needs and development of skills and capabilities of people, at least as these are expressed in the country case stud-ies in the skills for green jobs study.

•Green transition in national development has begun to get attention in the developing countries as reflected in policy statements, various legislative measures, and national institutional mechanisms, in the context of international dialogue on the subject, especially in the aftermath of the United Nations Framework Conven-tion on Climate Change, otherwise known as the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997. However, the efforts in implementation of the strategies and the legislations including assessment, analyses, building the database to conduct adequate diagnostics and to develop the evidence-based policies and strategies are deficient in most developing countries. So are the mechanism to monitor progress and the organisational and institu-tional structures and professional capacities for imple-mentation.

•There are scattered activities in developing coun-tries in identifying skills needs and offering green sk i l ls development oppor tunit ies either in the public sector or by private enterprises. They do not mostly add up to a coherent and comprehensive strategy and programme. However, it is necessary and possible to build upon these existing activities and work out strategies and programmes which are sufficiently comprehensive and are effectively implemented.

Promoting the second generation green revolution

The key messages of this section may be expressed in

terms of adopting and acting on a second generation con-

cept of the green revolution. In other words, the challenge

is how the original green (meaning agricultural) revolution

can be turned into a green revolution in the sense of envi-

ronmental sustainability.

High input farming on irrigated and high-potential rain-

fed land with the use of seed, fertiliser and crop-pattern

technology was the essence of the green revolution that

spread in the 1970s and averted a looming food crisis in

the developing world. It also helped to save vast amounts

of low-potential land including forests and arid land from

being converted into low-yield farms to meet the demand

for grains. But the typical mono-cropping practices with

the package of seed-water-fertilisers-pesticides which led

to dramatic increase in wheat and rice production also

exacted an environmental price, often ignored at the time

(World Bank: 2008, chapter 8).

Demand for irrigation water rose as was misuse and waste

of water. Other problems arose from improper use of fer-

tilisers and pesticides leading to water pollution; indirect

damage to ecosystems when chemicals from farming en-

tered water systems; and pesticide poisoning of humans,

animals, plants and insects. Additional fertiliser runoff

from agriculture also caused algae growth choking water

channels and destroying wetlands and wildlife habitats.

Evidence is mounting that the intensive and high-input

farming pattern focusing on increased grain production al-

most at any cost is not sustainable. Land degradation and

pest and weed build-up are slowing down productivity

gains especially in the intensive systems of rice and wheat

farming in South Asia (ibid., chapter 8).

The environmental stress and the collateral costs of

intensive farming of the original green revolution farm-

ing pattern demand a re-examination of the cropping

systems and management of resources to adjust these

to locally appropriate sustainable methods. Incentives

and pricing of inputs and products which encouraged

adoption of the intensification practices now prevent

the shift to diversified systems and use of alternatives

to heavy use of chemicals and water and depletion of

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natural soil fertility. How the balance can be shifted to

diversified eco-friendly agriculture, without jeopardising

food security and life and livelihood of rural people, has

to be put high on the agenda for national and interna-

tional response to climate change.

Supported by macro policies for greening agriculture and

rural and national economies, research and knowledge

dissemination, and skills and capacity building, have to be

directed to exploring the elements of a second generation

”green” revolution and applying these in broad-ranging

rural transformation in developing countries.

4.4 Promoting Skills and Jobs for the Green Rural Transformation

Skills development systems need to go beyond matching

training to labour market needs. They need to play a cata-

lytic role in future economic growth and resilience by ena-

bling enterprises and entrepreneurs to adapt technologies,

compete in new markets, diversify economic activities and

thus accelerate job growth. Availability of good quality and

sufficient education and training means creation of the ca-

pability to take advantage of opportunities and to mitigate

the negative impact of change (ILO: 2011a, p.IV).

What are ”green skills”?

A body of literature has developed on defining and

determining green jobs and green skills. The concept

of green jobs has been discussed above. The following

is one list that enumerates essential skills necessary for

green jobs mentioned in the country cases in the skills

for green jobs study. It is evident that the skills identi-

fied are general competencies and skills relevant for

performing effectively as producers, consumers and de-

cision makers in the general economic context of pro-

ducing goods and services. Whether these are ”green”

or not depends on the specific contexts and purposes –

how the products or services are produced and used; it

is not inherent in the skill itself. The ILO study, as noted,

did not specifically look at the rural economy and the

green transition of rural areas; but the list below clearly

has broad applicability (ILO: 2011a, chapter 5).

•Strategic and leadership skills to enable policy-makers

and business executives to set the right incentives and create conditions conducive to cleaner production, transportation, marketing, etc.;

•Adaptability and transferability of skills to enable work-ers to learn and apply the new technologies and pro-cesses required to green their jobs;

•Environmental awareness and willingness to learn about sustainable development;

•Coordination, management and business skills to facili-tate holistic and interdisciplinary approaches incorpo-rating economic, social and ecological objectives;

•Systems and risk analysis skills to assess, interpret and understand both the need for change and the meas-ures required;

•Entrepreneurial skills to seize the opportunities of low-carbon technologies;

•Innovation skills to identify opportunities and create new strategies to respond to green challenges;

•Communication and negotiation skills to discuss con-flicting interests in complex contexts;

•Marketing skills to promote greener products and ser-vices;

•Consulting skills to advise consumers about green solu-tions and to spread the use of green technologies; and

•Networking, IT and language skills to perform in global markets (ILO: 2011a, p.107).

The emphasis on technology-driven innovations in green transition has prompted many country reports to stress on skills in science, technology, engineering and mathemat-ics (STEM). These skills are in demand for the economy. But science courses do not attract enough applicants, with enrolment rates low and drop-out rates high, especially in rural areas. These courses are often not on offer in rural communities or nearby towns. When the schools exist, poor learning environment and poor quality of instruc-tion discourage students. Many types of work in the green economy demand skills such as the ability to reason and identify problems; the mathematical, scientific or techno-logical knowledge to address these problems; the research and scientific skills to break down a complex issue into smaller parts, to recognise cause and effect relationships, and to draw conclusions. The ICT skills needed to access

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knowledge and information and use appropriate software and equipment for this purpose have become critically im-portant (see below).

Core, generic and portable skills

In many countries the basic requirements of functional skills in literacy and numeracy remain unmet. Participation in a green economy that relies on technologies to move towards sustainable forms of production and consumption calls for a range of competencies. These extend from basic skills of reading product labels and understanding manuals and writ-ten instructions to calculating prices and costs, documenting knowledge and planning green investment. Basic literacy and numeracy skills are also a foundation for further learning and attaining technical competencies. Rural people in develop-ing countries lacking functional literacy and numeracy can take a major leap forward towards the transition to a green economy, if the people are equipped with the basic general competencies (ILO: 2011a, p.108).

In addition to work and employment related skills mentioned above, certain core skills at a basic level are central in coping with changing economies. These include knowing how to learn, how to work in teams and how to communicate effectively, which need to be learned at a young age through participation in basic general education. Language skills are critically important in accessing knowledge related to environmental change. Basic competencies in language and mathematics are essential to participate effectively in skills training and perform well in jobs, as noted above. Basic vocational orientation and preparation should be available to all. It should include basic scientific knowledge regarding the physical and biological environment; working at a basic level with and appreciating the properties and uses of ma-terials, such as wood, metal, soil, air and water; basic understand-ing of finite and renewable resources of the planet; and basic orientation about occupations and jobs, including green jobs. These basic knowledge and skills can be considered as “portable skills” which are useful whatever occupation one enters or what-ever further training or education one moves into (ibid., chapter 5).

Comprehensive and well-coordinated policies

Effective policies need to combine a sound environmen-tal policy and a comprehensive skills policy for greening which together build an effective green strategy. The

two connected arenas of policy have to be consciously designed to avoid skill gaps in achieving environmental goals, and identify, in the transition to the low-carbon economies, opportunities for new jobs and new skills. The key to achieving policy coherence lies in designing the right institutional mechanisms to ensure that policies are coordinated between different line ministries and agen-cies, social partners and other stakeholders.

The developing country cases reported in the ILO skills for green jobs study illustrate the mixed picture in respect of the development of coordinated climate change and skills policies. In South Africa, for example, the National Climate Change Strategy dates back to 2004, yet no plan was for-mulated for its implementation. The Long-term Mitigation Scenarios Plan (2008) contains an ambitious mitigation strategy but lacks an adaptation supplement. South Africa has been in the process of developing a national response to climate change including adaptation measures.

Sustainable development is a national strategy in China, and many policies and measures introduced under this umbrella – on energy efficiency, renewable energy, reforestation, and soil and water conservation – yield benefits in respect of climate change. China’s Action Plan on Climate Change ad-dresses mitigation and adaptation, science and technology, public awareness, institutional reform, coordination across agencies and international cooperation. A comprehensive national skill development strategy for greening the econo-my, however, is still in the works.

Bangladesh, Mali and Uganda fall into the category of least developed countries and qualify for support under the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) introduced by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). NAPAs are policy docu-ments designed to help prioritise urgent and immediate climate change adaptation needs. This mechanism, if used effectively, can help formulate integrated plans and activi-ties and receive the resource support for implementation, moving away from dealing with skills policies and environ-mental policies in isolation from each other.

Overall, three broad policy-related difficulties confront-ing countries in their attempts to move to a low-carbon economy can be identified.

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•Lack of enforcement of environmental regulations of al-

ready adopted, sometimes along with a need for more

detailed and elaborate legislation to protect the envi-

ronment. Weak enforcement of environmental laws and

consequently lax implementation reduces the demand

for the new skills needed to comply with them.

•Limited awareness and capacities of policy-makers to

integrate a skill dimension into policy responses to

manage environmental risks. Most of the documenta-

tion on adaptation and mitigation measures, policies,

strategies, action plans and programmes initiated in

response to climate change and environmental degra-

dation refers only very briefly to the skills implications of

these measures, and lacks any, or any substantial, skills

response component. Lack of human and financial re-

sources, unclear mandates of institutions involved and

lack of general environmental awareness are some of

the obstacles hampering skills development strategies.

•Weak coordination of efforts between ministries and

other governmental agencies. Mechanisms estab-

lished for identifying, monitoring, anticipating and

providing skills do not usually include representation

from environment ministries. Similarly, ministries,

agencies and institutions concerned with education

and training are mostly not involved in developing

environmental policies. This lack of reciprocity clearly

reduces the prospects for coordinated approaches.

In other cases, even if inter-ministerial coordination

is undertaken successfully, coordination for imple-

mentation may be weak, and as a result policies to

include a skills response in greening remain limited

to isolated initiatives (ILO: 2011, pp.53-54).

In coping with the challenges of climate change and job creation

and linking the two, policies for both the environment and skills

are weak and generally not well aligned in many countries. The

majority of developing countries does not quite have either a well-

developed environmental policy or skills development policy

for a greener economy. This is the conclusion from country case

information analysed by the authors of the ILO study. The countries

have benefited from important initiatives in the environmental

field at strategic level, but generally lack implementation mecha-

nisms, including implementation of training responses to improve

skills for greening the economy. Their policies reflect weaknesses

both in environment and skills areas and in links between the two.

Policy challenge – relating environment and skills issues

The coordination of skills policies and environmental poli-

cies is a critical issue in the transition to green economy and

employment. As the country studies show, many countries

have formulated environmental policies but have fallen short

of developing the necessary associated skills policies. Others

have gone further in articulating skills policies and strategies,

but they have not necessarily seen the importance of or at-

tempted to forge the links between the two.

Coherence of policies and the links between related policy

arenas have many facets and are highly contextual. The

ILO study on skills for green jobs, based on country experi-

ences, has suggested following criteria for assessing and

promoting policy coherence.

•One policy should not contradict another. Coordination

among policies is essential to avoid working at cross-

purposes.

•Policies should have good coverage and be mutually

complementary to each other. Policies should reflect

need and concerns of different stakeholders, including

employers, workers, consumers and government agen-

cies representing overall public interest.

•Policies should correspond to the needs of the labour

market and take into account current and future chal-

lenges. Therefore, policies should be informed by re-

search and labour market monitoring.

•There should be a clear link from policy pronounce-

ments to actions, including finance. Lack of implemen-

tation and enforcement has been reported by countries

as one of the most frequent hindrances to the greening

process.

•There should be an effective monitoring and evaluation

mechanism to follow policy implementation.

In short, among the developing countries, most have

attempted to articulate environmental policies and

many have grappled with policy priorities and strategies

in skills development. It is necessary to ensure how the

two moving on parallel tracks without intersection can

be prevented.


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Public sector and government roles

The leadership and the guidance for creating a favour-able policy environment for transition to the green economy have to come from the government as part of its role in articulating the policy, priorities and strat-egies for the green transition. Creating the national coalition of stakeholders and partnerships of all actors in formulating and supporting the national goals and programmes is also the responsibility of the political and government leadership, as is the fostering of the political will to act effectively. The policy and regula-tory framework and specific programmes should evolve through a process of participatory social dialogue keep-ing in view the potential social tensions, fair sharing of costs and benefits, and effective use of scarce physical and financial resources. Again the government has to provide the leadership and nurture the environment for partnership (UNEP et al.: 2008).

Workers and segments of society adversely affected by the green transition need protection through, for example, proactive labour policies, income guarantees, retraining and capacity building. New job opportunities arising from new low-carbon markets are expected to offset unemploy-ment arising from the contraction of older, more carbon-intensive industries. The new green jobs will not necessar-ily go to those who have lost their old jobs. Disadvantaged groups in the labour market will need targeted assistance and preferential treatment. Retraining and skills upgrading are thus crucial to a successful, smooth and equitable tran-sition to the low-carbon and green economy.

An important role of government policies and regulations and publicly funded services is to ensure equal access of all groups, especially the disadvantaged. Those with dis-abilities, young people, ethnic minorities and the low-skilled need to have access to productive and gainful jobs or appropriate training and skills development opportuni-ties leading to jobs (ibid., p.93). Attention is also needed on encouraging entrepreneurship and investment in diversi-fying local economies and creating new jobs.

Country case studies have drawn attention to public sector roles and initiatives, a few of which are briefly noted below.

India

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of 2005, mentioned earlier, offers guarantee of work for 100 days in a year to at least one member of rural households be-low the poverty line. The scheme targeted at the low-skill workforce, has a strong natural resource management component and has recently included afforestation pro-jects. Men and women employed through the scheme planted and protected trees and acquired their skills either through traditional channels or through informal training in the field.

South Africa

In South Afr ica , the Expanded Publ ic Works Pro-gramme (EPWP) has provided over one million jobs since its inception in 2004. The EPWP supports work in infrastructure, economic, social and ecosystem protection projects. It provides relevant training to the employees. The programme particularly targets vulnerable population groups.

The ”Working for Water” programme in South Africa trains unemployed people in local communities to use a range of methods to control and remove invasive alien plants. The alien plants pose a threat to South Africa’s water security and the natural ecological systems by di-verting enormous amounts of water from more produc-tive uses. An essential element of the programme is to enable people to participate in environmental conser-vation and in sustainable, decent jobs. The programme provides various jobs, including water contractor em-ployees, chainsaw operator, brush-cutter operator, her-bicide applicator, plant identifier, and health and safety representatives (ILO: 2011a, pp.83-85).

Thailand

In Thailand, the Ministry of Agriculture has organised training courses for rural farmers in producing and using bio-fertilisers based on renewable organic material rather than on chemicals or oil. The Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DAEDE) has adopted an action plan to train people who have lost jobs in rural areas in the production, installation and maintenance of alternative energy sources (making biomass, and installing and maintaining solar, hydro and wind energy technology) (ILO: 2011a, pp.81-82).

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The informal economy

The informal economy is by far the largest provider of em-ployment in most developing countries. Measures to re-structure the economy mainly in the organised sectors will leave large proportions of the people, especially in rural ar-eas, without access to the skills development and new job opportunities. The organised sectors of the economy lend themselves to policy and regulatory interventions some-what more easily than the dispersed informal economic activities. Quantitative estimates are hard to come by, but it can be reasonably assumed that there is large overlap between informal sector work and rural employment.

ILO estimate indicates that informal sector employment ranges form over one-third to more than 80 percent of total employment in developing countries. For example, it is reported to be – Uganda 83 percent, the Philippines 77 percent, Thailand 72 percent, Indonesia 68 percent, India 57 percent, Mali 56 percent, Brazil 46 percent, Egypt 44 percent, and Costa Rica 37 percent. However, these esti-mates are not based on consistent criteria. All agricultural workers are not included in some cases, in others some other sectors are excluded and data sources and their reli-ability vary. The researchers compiling the statistics are of the view that the actual proportions in the informal economy are likely to be substantially higher in some of the countries (ILO: 2009).

The informal economy employs a high proportion of low-skilled workers with the least prospects of moving into the formal economy or alternative employment. In India, for instance, 23 percent of men and 40 percent of women in the unorganised sector do not have primary-level education. The informal economy also consists largely of micro and small enterprises, which may need greater technical support and public assistance in restructuring (ILO 2011: p.59).

Specific measures in agriculture, forestry and livestock

Restructuring in agriculture is happening in a great va-riety of ways. Most of the country case studies indicate that many farmers are repositioning themselves both within the sector and in other sectors, prompted by the inability to make enough profit to live on from agriculture.

The farmers are attempting to respond to the develop-ment of machinery and technology, and various effects of climate change.

China is a prominent example, but others are following suit in agriculture, forestry and fisheries to refocus on or-ganic food production. This is part of the shifts across sub-sectors and within the food/wood processing industry (for example, to sustainable forestry or new kinds of aquacul-ture), which generates corresponding training and retrain-ing needs (UNDP: 2010, p.64).

Organic farming is more labour intensive than convention-al farming, generating 20-30 percent more jobs. Moving from low-productivity conventional farming, where farm-ers often cannot afford pesticides and fertilisers, to organic farming requires adoption of new technologies, which generate higher yields and better productivity with impact on income poverty. This kind of shift has implications for skills development and provision for extension services.

In Bangladesh, organic farming is as profitable as con-ventional farming. Although production costs are higher, products command premium prices. It is still on a largely experimental footing, accounting for only 2 percent of the country’s total cultivable land and one percent of farmers. The Ecological Agriculture Program (EAP), run by a national NGO with support from international donors, is expected to involve around 0.8 million farmers in organic cultivation on 0.22 million acres of land by 2020. The involvement of farmers in organic farming through training programmes, mostly provided by NGOs, spans over 16 districts and over 100,000 farming families.

In Egypt, 500 organic farms cultivate approximately 24,500 hectares of land. This is a negligible proportion of the to-tal agricultural land, but the potential for growth is high. Development of the skills, again, is primarily met by NGOs such as the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBA). It pro-vides regular training seminars, workshops, farm visits and field trips.

In Uganda, according to the National Organic Agricultural Movement (NOGAMU), 200,000 farmers are engaged in or-ganic farming. NOGAMU has identified the skills needed to build capacity in the production and processing of organic


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products, and also the training needs for farmers. The train-ing covers areas of organic production including manage-ment of pests and diseases, soil fertility, post-harvest han-dling of crops, weed management, and processing and marketing of products (World Bank: 2008, p.67).

Biofuels prospects

Biofuel production arguably helps reduce poverty by creating rural jobs and at the same time mitigates cli-mate change. There are also costs that need careful consideration from the social, environmental, ethical and economic points of view. Where the costs and ben-efits work out in favour of turning over low-yield land to biofuel feed stocks, it creates employment and income generation opportunities for those farmers and farm workers who are forced to stop food farming for eco-nomic and environmental reasons. Retraining is impor-tant, both in restructuring from traditional agricultural crops into biofuel and in adapting to change in both fuel and food production.

In Brazil, South Africa and other parts of Latin America, bio-fuel cultivation is dominated by low-skill migrant labour. Requirements for skilled labour will increase as the indus-try grows. Farmers and farm workers will need better skills to thrive in the new environment. In Kenya, the cultivation of jatropha (a type of succulent plant found in tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, Asia and America) for biofuel production has been considered not viable for smallholder farming, despite its promising potential and good reputa-tion elsewhere, such as Mali. This is partly because of the current methods of cultivation (monoculture or intercrop plantation rather than natural growth with very few in-puts), and because of a lack of agronomic support, aware-ness raising and skills development. Investment in biofuels has to be integrated within a broader context of rural development and human capital formation (UN Energy: 2007; World Bank: 2008).

Enhancing effectiveness of skill training

The country cases in the ILO study indicate that short, intensive vocational training courses, tailored to the specific needs of employers are the most successful way of delivering retraining for specific new job opportuni-

ties. Such retraining has to occur locally, in rural areas, if

this is where the jobs are. Ideally, it should be linked to

the job opportunity and should not detach participants

from existing work or from the job market. For instance,

in rural areas it is more difficult for women than for men

to participate in training outside their village. Thus there

is a need for local training facilities. Trained trainers and

teachers have to be found and the remunerations have

to be such as to attract the right people as trainers.

The Philippines country report refers to the import of a

green technology that is not yet available in the domes-

tic market, which means either sending Filipinos ap-

pointed to manage and maintain the technology over-

seas for training or bringing in expertise from abroad to

train Filipinos (ILO: 2011a, pp.81-82).

Anticipating and projecting green skills and green jobs

A standard and agreed definition and statistically count-

able categories of green jobs and related skill, as noted

above, do not exist. This creates difficulties in measuring

green jobs and skills and placing these into occupational

and industrial classification systems. Countries which have

developed and established systems for the identification of

skill needs and collect labour market information through

labour market information systems (LMIS) enjoys a head-

start. They need to create additional means of detecting

new requirements arising from the transition to a low-

carbon, greener economy. Where LMIS does not exist, as in

most developing countries, ad hoc surveys can be relied

upon and used as the basis for developing the information

system. Effective approaches in this respect make use of

public dialogue and participation at sectoral or grass-roots

level with stakeholders (ILO 2011: p.145).

The developing countries without LMIS rely on ad hoc

surveys organised by NGOs, international donors and, in

some cases, national government agencies. On the whole,

these have not produced sufficiently comprehensive infor-

mation about present and anticipated green jobs and the

quantitative and qualitative status of skills related to the

green jobs. They often use very basic forecasting methods

and use simple assumptions; e.g., counting every job cre-

ated in agriculture as a green job (ibid., p.156).

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Some specialised green skills

The International Standard Classification of Occupations

(ISCO), last updated in 2008, classifies skill specialisation in

terms of four conceptual areas: (i) the field of knowledge

required; (ii) the tools and machinery used; (iii) the materi-

als worked on or with; and (iv) the kind of goods and ser-

vices produced (Greenwood: 2008).

Whether entirely new occupational categories need to

emerge or some redefinition of the character or features

of existing occupations will suffice, depend on the de-

gree of change in the skill composition of occupations

when economies go through the green transition. The

evidence from the case studies is that redefining exist-

ing jobs and skills rather than inventing new categories

is generally expected. In a way this is a bigger challenge

which requires looking at existing skills and jobs criti-

cally and reshaping them rather than designing new

job profiles from the scratch. The distinction probably

is a matter of degree, because almost all skills and jobs

in the fast paced global economy have been changing

rapidly in any event. It is now necessary to bring in the

green perspective into this process, which has been of-

ten neglected. Recent research including the ILO study,

particularly the country cases, suggests new combina-

tions of specialised skills which need to be given atten-

tion in promoting the green transition especially in the

context of rural transformation. These, reported in the

skills for green jobs study (ILO: 2011a, pp.125-126), are

summarised below.

Carbon financing specialists

Flexible mechanisms introduced in the Kyoto Protocol

included international carbon trading, which led to a

number of new green occupations. The United King-

dom carbon finance sector employs over 21,500 staff

in 2,500 companies, including emissions traders, envi-

ronmental lawyers, carbon auditors and Clean Devel-

opment Mechanism (CDM) project investors. Financial

brokers who once traded fossil fuels are now buying,

selling and trading current and future carbon emissions.

The new occupational profile requires the skills of the

existing occupation plus additional specialised knowl-

edge of new green markets.

Demand for carbon consultants is growing in developing countries such as Indonesia where firms providing services related to CDM projects are increasing rapidly. Carbon con-sultants are hired to assist project owners in meeting na-tional and international criteria to qualify under the CDM. A combination of technical and financial skills is needed to perform these tasks. Technical skills required include the capacity to calculate the emissions reduction potential us-ing methods defined by the international CDM governing body. This specialised skill is particularly important for the rural economy and the agricultural sector where major po-tentials exist for carbon sequestration in forests and land making new rural economic activities potentially viable. The country reports for Mali and South Africa have noted the shortage of carbon consultants, but the shortage ex-ists in other developing countries as well.

Researchers at university level

Crop varieties have to be developed and introduced that can withstand the vagaries of climate change. Demand for soil scientists, plant and animal breeders and pathologists will rise. Most researchers in agriculture have to be multidis-ciplinary. The scientists have to be supported by agricultural technicians for field level experimentation and trial of crop diversification and the application of improved machinery to reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions. A new occupational field in this area is precision agriculture which helps calibrate applications of herbicides, pesticides, irrigation and fertilisers to avoid over- or under-use. The skills it requires include the ability to apply remote sensing, geographic infor-mation systems (GIS) and global positioning systems (GPS).

Irrigation specialists

They will be in demand to identify appropriate irrigation technologies that improve water conservation, conduct market studies to ensure the technologies are applied ef-fectively, and impart skills in using and maintaining the technology to end users. This is particularly important as climate change and variability increase water scarcity.

Agricultural meteorology

It is a new occupation created in response to increasing weather variability. These professionals apply meteorological information to enhance crop yields and reduce crop losses caused by adverse weather. They combine knowledge of


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plant physiology and pathology, meteorology and agronomy, common agricultural practices and remote sensing tech-niques. They collect satellite images and remote sensing im-ages, including vegetation indices from centres that monitor the evolution of rainfalls, and make projections about weather, river flows and pest infestations.

Eco-adviser in agriculture

For sustainable development, eco-certification is another emerging occupation. These experts advise farms of all sizes from agribusinesses to smallholders in sustainable practic-es and existing certification mechanisms and standards. In the forestry sector, numbers of foresters or tree farmers are expected to rise when governments invest in reforestation to mitigate negative impacts of climate change, restore soils and conserve biodiversity. Tree farmers in countries such as Uganda need additional skills to become involved in selling the carbon sequestered by their forests on the voluntary and CDM markets.

Renewable energy specialists

This sector represents the most dynamic labour market seg-ment for newly emerging green occupations, such as renew-able energy engineers, consultants, auditors, quality control-lers, and installation and maintenance technicians. These occupations are widely considered new since their skills content differs considerably from their counterparts in other sectors, albeit with some overlap. These occupations are all characterised by high added value and middle to high quali-fication levels. Others that may develop in the future include lawyers specialising in renewable energy legislation.

Education and training specialists

The education and training sector is of critical im-portance in the green transition, disseminating basic knowledge about environmental changes and influenc-ing the behaviour of people in matters of environmental sustainability. The skills required in education itself are also changing, as teachers, trainers, instructors, school managers and public administrators adapt to change brought about by technological change and innovation, climate change and environment, greening policy and regulations about education, and labour markets.

Teaching and training personnel in all education systems and at all levels need command of the necessary skills and methods to impart environmental knowledge, to create awareness and to react flexibly to ever-changing labour market needs. But developing countries have insufficient numbers of well-trained teachers and trainers to satisfy the need to update the skills of large and growing workforces, including a need to incorporate environmental course content and update curricula in primary, secondary, ter-tiary and adult education and training.

The greening of the economies in developing countries and the implications for skills and capacity building within a framework of rural transformation have been reviewed in this chapter. How this perspective can be incorporated into organisations and institutions for promoting skills and capacities to fight rural poverty and bring about rural transformation will be considered in chapter 5.

Towards the future. Chengdu, China.Photo: © Shen, Peng.

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Extracurricular activity in a rural school in Dujiangyan city, China.Photo: © Shen, Peng.

Rural women reading and learning in their leisure time. Yunnan, China.Photo: © Li, Jinsong.

A small village in rural Ethiopia.Photo: © Wang, Li.

chapter 4 · sustainable development must be focused on the fight against poverty, especially rural...

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