chapter 4 - what is-leadership

CHAPTER 4LEADERSHIP

TMU Syllabus» Objectives» Leadership Qualities» Characteristics of Leadership» Techniques of Leadership – Styles / Types» Theories of Leadership» Co-ordination» Motivation » Theories of Motivation

Leadership – Key Points

» Leadership in Simple Terms

» Leader Characteristics

» Qualities of Leadership

» Leadership as Empowerment

» The Leadership Role

» The Ingredients of a Successful Leader

» What is Successful Leadership

» The Lombardi Leadership Model (2001)

Leadership begins with Self-knowledge

“Self-knowledge is the basis for character... Character is the root of integrity...

Integrity provides the foundation for leadership”.

(Lombardi, 2001)

What do you know about yourself as a leader?

Leadership in Simple Terms

» Understand the vision

» Direct and enable others to cooperate in achieving it

“Leadership is the ability to direct people, more important, to have those people accept that direction”. (Lombardi, 2001)

Leadership is about:» Motivating

» Inspiring

» Taking people to greater heights

» Working with participants on the how and helping them figure out the what and why

» Encouraging them to push themselves to achieve the highest possible performance

» Action

» Enabling, not telling

» Talking the talk and walking the walk...walking alongside

“Leadership that pulls together people with diverse talents, backgrounds, experiences and interests, encourages them to

step up to responsibility and continued achievement, and treats them as full scale partners and contributors.

Leadership is not about memorising techniques or devising the perfect game plan. It is about really paying attention to people

– really believing them, really caring about them, really involving them.”

(Peters & Austin, 1985)

How would you define leadership?

Leader Characteristics include:

» Ability

» Knowledge

» Experience

» Personality

What characteristics of leadership do you have?

Qualities of Leadership

» Leadership qualities are demonstrated in a leader’s behaviour, not their position.

“Leadership is not just one quality but rather a blend of qualities”.

Leadership Qualities

» Enable direction and structure

by the group» A clear vision» Charisma» Enable motivation and enthusiasm

» Make a difference

» People-oriented skills

» Skilful communicator

» Build character

» Empathy

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What leadership qualities do you have?

» Vision and passion

» Strong communicating skills

» Role model

» Have integrity and honesty

» Be organised

Leadership as Empowerment

“A good leader inspires people to have confidence in their leader.

A great leader inspires people to have confidence in themselves”.(Anonymous)

Leadership as Empowerment

Current ideas on leadership involve empowering followers to self-lead.

This is important in a coach-leadership role as empowering athletes enables them to make their own decisions and self-lead during performance.

“The best leaders - people do not even notice their existence.

The next best - people honour and praise.

The next the people fear.

The next the people hate.

When the best leader’s work is done the people say ‘we did it ourselves’.”

Leaders Build Leadership

To build leadership the leader has to enable participant independence so they can perform with freedom and autonomy to make informed decisions without the leader around. (Hinkson, 2001)

The Leadership Role

A good leader is a person who:

» Is a good teacher

» Doesn’t put down those they are working with

» Gets the most from those they are working with

» Works within the framework of the rules

“A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way.”

John C. Maxwell

The Ingredients of a Successful Leader

» Create and practise values

» Develop committed followers

» Inspire lofty accomplishments

» Model appropriate behaviour

» Focus attention on important issues

» Connect the group to the outside world

What other ingredients are important to be a successful leader?

What is Successful Leadership?

Successful leaders get the most out of the participants and enable them to learn:

» How to lead and follow within the team

» How to make good decisions

» Not to be afraid to fail

» Character values

» How to be successful leaders and people

» To be the best they can be

The Lombardi Leadership Model (2001)

Which of these leadership traits are the hardest for you?

Character Belief Habit

Courage Responsibility Sacrifice

WillpowerHard work

Mental Toughness Discipline

Finally...

Leadership is a combination of character and competence; of who you are and what you can do.

(Covey, 2004)

A Leadership Story:

» A group of workers and their leaders are set a task of clearing a road through a dense jungle on a remote island to get to the coast where an estuary provides a perfect site for a port.

» The leaders organise the labour into efficient units and monitor the distribution and use of capital assets – progress is excellent. The leaders continue to monitor and evaluate progress, making adjustments along the way to ensure the progress is maintained and efficiency increased wherever possible.

» Then, one day amidst all the hustle and bustle and activity, one person climbs up a nearby tree. The person surveys the scene from the top of the tree.

A Leadership Story:

» And shouts down to the assembled group below…» “Wrong Way!”» (Story adapted from Stephen Covey (2004) “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective

People” Simon & Schuster).

» “Management is doing things right, leadership is doing the right things”

(Warren Bennis and Peter Drucker)

Leadership

Types of Leadership Style

Creative & Institutional


» Autocratic:• Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone

else• High degree of dependency on the leader• Can create de-motivation and alienation

of staff• May be valuable in some types of business where

decisions need to be made quickly and decisively


» Democratic:» Encourages decision making

from different perspectives – leadership may be emphasised throughout the organisation• Consultative: process of consultation before

decisions are taken• Persuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to

persuade others that the decision is correct


»Democratic:•May help motivation and involvement•Workers feel ownership of the firm and its ideas

•Improves the sharing of ideas and experiences within the business

•Can delay decision making


»Laissez-Faire:• ‘Let it be’ – the leadership responsibilities

are shared by all• Can be very useful in businesses

where creative ideas are important• Can be highly motivational,

as people have control over their working life• Can make coordination and decision making

time-consuming and lacking in overall direction• Relies on good team work• Relies on good interpersonal relations


» Paternalistic:» Leader acts as a ‘father figure’» Paternalistic leader makes decision but may

consult» Believes in the need to support staff

Theories of Leadership


» Trait theories:» Is there a set of characteristics

that determine a good leader?• Personality?• Dominance and personal presence?• Charisma?• Self confidence?• Achievement?• Ability to formulate a clear vision?


» Trait theories:•Are such characteristics inherently gender biased?

•Do such characteristics produce good leaders?

• Is leadership more than just bringing about change?

•Does this imply that leaders are born not bred?


» Behavioural:» Imply that leaders can be trained – focus on the

way of doing things• Structure based behavioural theories – focus on the

leader instituting structures – task orientated• Relationship based behavioural theories – focus on

the development and maintenance of relationships – process orientated


» Contingency Theories: Situational Approach» Leadership as being more flexible – different

leadership styles used at different times depending on the circumstance.

» Suggests leadership is not a fixed series of characteristics that can be transposed into different contexts


» May depend on:•Type of staff•History of the business•Culture of the business•Quality of the relationships•Nature of the changes needed•Accepted norms within the institution


» Transformational:• Widespread changes

to a business or organisation

» Requires:• Long term strategic planning• Clear objectives• Clear vision• Leading by example – walk the walk• Efficiency of systems and processes


» Group Approach:• Success of a leader is primarily influenced by the

characteristics of the particular group• Group members approve or disapprove of a leader• Culture, patterns, traditions• So an individual can become a good leader only if he

adopts the above culture, traditions• Be a roman in Rome to start with


» Transactional Theories:•Focus on the management of the organisation

•Focus on procedures and efficiency•Focus on working to rules and contracts

•Managing current issues and problems

Factors Affecting Style

Factors Affecting Style

» Leadership style may be dependent on various factors:• Risk - decision making and change initiatives

based on degree of risk involved• Type of business – creative business

or supply driven?• How important change is –

change for change’s sake?• Organisational culture – may be long embedded

and difficult to change• Nature of the task – needing cooperation? Direction?

Structure?

Change Leadership

Change Leadership

» The most challenging aspect of business is leading and managing change

» The business environment is subject to fast-paced economic and social change

» Modern business must adapt and be flexible to survive

» Problems in leading change stem mainly from human resource management

Change Leadership

Self-esteem

Time

1. Immobilisation – as rumours of the change circulate, the individual feels some sense of shock and possible disbelief – so much so that they deem it worthy of doing nothing.

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2. Minimisation: As the change becomes clearer, people try to fit in the change with their own personal position and may try to believe that it will not affect them.

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3. Depression: as reality begins to dawn staff may feel alienated and angry, feelings of a lack of control of events overtake people and they feel depressed as they try to reconcile what is happening with their own personal situation.

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4. Acceptance/letting go: The lowest point in self-esteem finally sees people starting to accept the inevitable. Fear of the future is a feature of this stage.

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5. Testing out: Individuals begin to interact with the change, they start to ask questions to see how they might work with the change.

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6. Search for meaning: Individuals begin to work with the change and see how they might be able to make the change work for them – self esteem begins to rise.

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7. Internalisation: the change is understood and adopted within the individual’s own understanding – they now know how to work with it and feel a renewed sense of confidence and self esteem.

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

Motivation and Performance

Motivation

Ability

Effort

Environment

Performance

3 Major Types of Motivation Theories

» Content Theories of Motivation•WHAT motivates us

» Process Theories of Motivation•WHY and HOW motivation occurs

» Reinforcement Theory•HOW outcomes influence behaviors

Content Perspectives on Motivation

» Content Perspectives• Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,

“What factors in the workplace motivate people?”

» Content Perspectives of Motivation• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs• Aldefer’s ERG Theory• McGregory’s Theory X and Theory Y• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory• McClelland’s Achievement,

Power, and Affiliation Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-

actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Security

PhysiologyFood

Achievement

Status

Friendship

Stability

Job

Friends

Pension

Base

NEEDSGeneral Examples Organizational Examples

jobChallenging

title

at work

plan

salary

Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy

Movement up the Pyramid

• Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

Maslow Application:

A homeless person

will not be motivated to

meditate!

Maslow Application:

A homeless person

will not be motivated to

meditate!

• Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsA Content Perspective

» What factor or factors motivate people» Weakness of Theory

• Five levels of need are not always present• Order is not always the same• Cultural differences

» Need’s Hierarchy in China…an example:

• Belonging• Physiological• Safety• Self actualizing in service to society

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryA Content Perspective

» Existence needs• Physiological

» Relatedness needs • How one individual relates to his/her social environment

» Growth needs• Achievement and self actualization

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryA Content Perspective

Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression

Growth Needs

Relatedness Needs

Existence Needs

Content Theories

» McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y• Theory X

» Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.

• Theory Y» Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire

responsibility, and like to work.

• Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.

Content Theories

» Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory• Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by

different factors.»Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors

that create job dissatisfaction.»Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that

create job satisfaction.• Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not

result in increased performance.»The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction,

but rather no satisfaction.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

McClelland’s Needs Theory

» Three-Needs Theory• There are three major acquired needs that are major

motives in work.• Need for achievement (nAch)

»The drive to excel and succeed

• Need for power (nPow)»The need to influence the behavior of others

• Need of affiliation (nAff)»The desire for interpersonal relationships

Process Perspectives of Motivation

» Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.

» Process perspectives of Motivation• Goal Setting Theory• Equity Theory• Expectancy Theory

Goal-Setting Theory-- A Process Perspective

Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with

self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

» Difficulty• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

» Specificity• Clarity and precision of the goal.

Goal Achievement Depends on:» Acceptance

• Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.» Commitment

• Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.

Equity Theory: A Process Perspective

» Individuals equate value of rewards to effort and compare it to other people.

Inputs/Outcomes Comparison of self with others

Equity

Inequity

Motivation to maintain current situation

Ways to reduce inequity• Change inputs• Change outcomes• Alter perceptions of self• Alter perceptions of other• Leave situation• Change comparisons

outcomes(self)inputs (self)

=outcomes

(other)inputs (other)

Justice and Equity Theory

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final

distribution).

“Who got what?”

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process used to

determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what

decided?”Interactional Justice

The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.

“Was I treated well?”

Three types of Justice Three types of Justice

Expectancy Theory --The Basic Idea

» People tend to prefer certain goals, or outcomes, over others.

» They anticipate experiencing feelings of satisfaction should such a preferred outcome be achieved.

» Basically, people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.

Expectancy Theory A Process Perspective

» Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it• Elements

»Effort to Performance Expectancy (E) is the probability that effort will lead to performance.

»Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I) is the perception that performance leads to an outcome.

»Outcome is the consequence or reward for performance.

»Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is valued.

Expectancy Theory A Process Perspective

M = E x I x V» For motivated behavior to occur:

• Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0• Performance-to-outcome must be greater than 0• Sum of valences must be greater than 0*

* One or more valences may be negative!

The Expectancy Model of Motivation

Environment

Motivation Effort Performance

Ability

Outcome

Outcome

Outcome

Valence

Outcome Valence

Outcome Valence

Valence

Valence

High Effort

Decision toExert Effort

Low EffortPerformance

Goal

PerformanceGoal

Expectancy“What are my chances

of reaching my performance goal

if I work hard?”

Expectancy“What are my chances

of reaching my performance goal

if I slack off?”

Instrumentality“What are my chances

of getting variousoutcomes if I achieve

my performance goal?”

Valence“How much do I value

these outcomes?”

Outcome 3

Outcome 2

Outcome 1

Outcome 3

Outcome 2

Outcome 1

A General Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Assumptions:

• Behavior is environmentally caused.

• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Assumptions:

• Behavior is environmentally caused.

• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.

• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Motivation: From Concepts to Applications

Job Design Theory

Characteristics:

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

Characteristics:

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

Job Characteristics Model

Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

Job Design Theory (cont’d)

» Job Characteristics Model

• Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:

»Knowledge of results

»Meaningfulness of work

»Personal feelings of responsibility for results

• Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

The Job Characteristics Model

Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.


Skill Variety

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?).Task Identity

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).

Task Significance

The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.


Autonomy

The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.Feedback

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

Characteristics Examples

Skill Variety• High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds

engines,does body work, and interacts with customers

• Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day

Task Identity• High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds

the object, and finishes it to perfection• Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs

Task Significance• High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit• Low significance Sweeping hospital floors

Autonomy• High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and

decides on the best techniques for a particular installation• Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a

routine, highly specified procedure

Feedback• High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to

determine if it operates properly• Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a

quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it

Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics

Computing a Motivating Potential Score

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.

Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.

Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.

chapter 4 - what is-leadership

Business

successful leadership

lombardi leadership

coachleadership role

best people

best leaders people

good leader

great leader

blend of qualities