chapter 42
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Chapter 42. Circulation and Gas Exchange. Overview: Trading Places. Every organism must exchange materials with its environment Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur directly with the environment. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Chapter 42Chapter 42
Circulation and Gas Exchange
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Trading Places
• Every organism must exchange materials with its environment
• Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level
• In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur directly with the environment
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• For most cells making up multicellular organisms, direct exchange with the environment is not possible
• Gills are an example of a specialized exchange system in animals
• Internal transport and gas exchange are functionally related in most animals
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Fig. 42-1
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Concept 42.1: Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body
• In small and/or thin animals, cells can exchange materials directly with the surrounding medium
• In most animals, transport systems connect the organs of exchange with the body cells
• Most complex animals have internal transport systems that circulate fluid
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Gastrovascular Cavities
• Simple animals, such as cnidarians, have a body wall that is only two cells thick and that encloses a gastrovascular cavity
• This cavity functions in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body
• Some cnidarians, such as jellies, have elaborate gastrovascular cavities
• Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity and a large surface area to volume ratio
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Fig. 42-2
Circularcanal
Radial canalMouth
(a) The moon jelly Aurelia, a cnidarian The planarian Dugesia, aflatworm
(b)
MouthPharynx
2 mm5 cm
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Fig. 42-2a
Circularcanal
Radial canalMouth
(a) The moon jelly Aurelia, a cnidarian
5 cm
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Fig. 42-2b
The planarian Dugesia, aflatworm
(b)
MouthPharynx
2 mm
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Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
• More complex animals have either open or closed circulatory systems
• Both systems have three basic components:
– A circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)
– A set of tubes (blood vessels)
– A muscular pump (the heart)
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• In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system
• In an open circulatory system, there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this general body fluid is more correctly called hemolymph
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• In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid
• Closed systems are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells
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Fig. 42-3
Heart
Hemolymph in sinusessurrounding organs
Heart
Interstitialfluid
Small branch vesselsIn each organ
Blood
Dorsal vessel(main heart)
Auxiliary hearts Ventral vessels
(b) A closed circulatory system(a) An open circulatory system
Tubular heart
Pores
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Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
• Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, often called the cardiovascular system
• The three main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries
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• Arteries branch into arterioles and carry blood to capillaries
• Networks of capillaries called capillary beds are the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid
• Venules converge into veins and return blood from capillaries to the heart
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• Vertebrate hearts contain two or more chambers
• Blood enters through an atrium and is pumped out through a ventricle
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Single Circulation
• Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have single circulation with a two-chambered heart
• In single circulation, blood leaving the heart passes through two capillary beds before returning
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Fig. 42-4
Artery
Ventricle
AtriumHeart
Vein
Systemic capillaries
Systemiccirculation
Gillcirculation
Gill capillaries
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Double Circulation
• Amphibian, reptiles, and mammals have double circulation
• Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart
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Fig. 42-5
Amphibians
Lung and skin capillaries
Pulmocutaneouscircuit
Atrium (A)
Ventricle (V)
Atrium (A)
Systemiccircuit
Right Left
Systemic capillaries
Reptiles (Except Birds)
Lung capillaries
Pulmonarycircuit
Rightsystemicaorta
Right LeftLeftsystemicaorta
Systemic capillaries
A A
VV
Systemic capillaries
Pulmonarycircuit
Systemiccircuit
Right Left
A A
VV
Lung capillaries
Mammals and Birds
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• In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs
• In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs and skin
• Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit
• Double circulation maintains higher blood pressure in the organs than does single circulation
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Adaptations of Double Circulatory Systems
• Hearts vary in different vertebrate groups
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Amphibians
• Frogs and other amphibians have a three-chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle
• The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery that splits the ventricle’s output into the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic circuit
• Underwater, blood flow to the lungs is nearly shut off
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Reptiles (Except Birds)
• Turtles, snakes, and lizards have a three-chambered heart: two atria and one ventricle
• In alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians a septum divides the ventricle
• Reptiles have double circulation, with a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a systemic circuit
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Mammals and Birds
• Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles
• The left side of the heart pumps and receives only oxygen-rich blood, while the right side receives and pumps only oxygen-poor blood
• Mammals and birds are endotherms and require more O2 than ectotherms
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Concept 42.2: Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals
• The mammalian cardiovascular system meets the body’s continuous demand for O2
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Mammalian Circulation
• Blood begins its flow with the right ventricle pumping blood to the lungs
• In the lungs, the blood loads O2 and unloads CO2
• Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped through the aorta to the body tissues by the left ventricle
• The aorta provides blood to the heart through the coronary arteries
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• Blood returns to the heart through the superior vena cava (blood from head, neck, and forelimbs) and inferior vena cava (blood from trunk and hind limbs)
• The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava flow into the right atrium
Animation: Path of Blood Flow in MammalsAnimation: Path of Blood Flow in Mammals
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Fig. 42-6
Superiorvena cava
Pulmonaryartery
Capillariesof right lung
3
7
3
8
9
24
11
51
10
Aorta
Pulmonaryvein
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Inferiorvena cava
Capillaries ofabdominal organsand hind limbs
Pulmonaryvein
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Aorta
Capillariesof left lung
Pulmonaryartery
Capillaries ofhead andforelimbs
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The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look
• A closer look at the mammalian heart provides a better understanding of double circulation
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Fig. 42-7
Pulmonary artery
Rightatrium
Semilunarvalve
Atrioventricularvalve
Rightventricle
Leftventricle
Atrioventricularvalve
Leftatrium
Semilunarvalve
Pulmonaryartery
Aorta
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• The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle
• The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole
• The relaxation, or filling, phase is called diastole
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Fig. 42-8-1
Semilunarvalvesclosed
0.4 secAVvalvesopen
Atrial andventriculardiastole
1
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Fig. 42-8-2
Semilunarvalvesclosed
0.4 secAVvalvesopen
Atrial andventriculardiastole
1
2
0.1 sec
Atrial systole;ventriculardiastole
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Fig. 42-8
Semilunarvalvesclosed
0.4 secAVvalvesopen
Atrial andventriculardiastole
1
2
0.1 sec
Atrial systole;ventriculardiastole
3
0.3 sec
Semilunarvalvesopen
AV valvesclosed
Ventricular systole;atrial diastole
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• The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute
• The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped in a single contraction
• The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume
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• Four valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart
• The atrioventricular (AV) valves separate each atrium and ventricle
• The semilunar valves control blood flow to the aorta and the pulmonary artery
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• The “lub-dup” sound of a heart beat is caused by the recoil of blood against the AV valves (lub) then against the semilunar (dup) valves
• Backflow of blood through a defective valve causes a heart murmur
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Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
• Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system
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• The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract
• Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node
• At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract
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• Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
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Fig. 42-9-1
Pacemakergenerates wave ofsignals to contract.
1
SA node(pacemaker)
ECG
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Fig. 42-9-2
Signals aredelayed atAV node.
2
AVnode
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Fig. 42-9-3
Signals passto heart apex.
3
Bundlebranches Heart
apex
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Fig. 42-9-4
Signals spreadthroughoutventricles.
4
Purkinjefibers
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Fig. 42-9-5
Signals spreadthroughoutventricles.
4
Purkinjefibers
Pacemakergenerates wave ofsignals to contract.
1
SA node(pacemaker)
ECG
Signals aredelayed atAV node.
2
AVnode
Signals passto heart apex.
3
Bundlebranches Heart
apex
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• The pacemaker is influenced by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise
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Concept 42.3: Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels
• The physical principles that govern movement of water in plumbing systems also influence the functioning of animal circulatory systems
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Blood Vessel Structure and Function
• The epithelial layer that lines blood vessels is called the endothelium
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Fig. 42-10Artery Vein
SEM100 µm
Endothelium
Artery
SmoothmuscleConnectivetissue Capillary
Basal lamina
Endothelium
Smoothmuscle
Connectivetissue
Valve
Vein
Arteriole Venule
Red blood cell
Capillary
15 µ
mL
M
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• Capillaries have thin walls, the endothelium plus its basement membrane, to facilitate the exchange of materials
• Arteries and veins have an endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue
• Arteries have thicker walls than veins to accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart
• In the thinner-walled veins, blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action
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Blood Flow Velocity
• Physical laws governing movement of fluids through pipes affect blood flow and blood pressure
• Velocity of blood flow is slowest in the capillary beds, as a result of the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area
• Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily slow for exchange of materials
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Fig. 42-11
5,0004,0003,000
2,0001,000
0
0
5040302010
120
80100
604020
0
Are
a (
cm
2 )V
elo
cit
y(c
m/s
ec
)P
res
su
re(m
m H
g)
Ao
rta
Art
eri
es
Art
eri
ole
s
Ca
pil
lari
es
Ve
nu
les
Ve
ins
Ve
na
e c
av
ae
Diastolicpressure
Systolicpressure
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Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel
• In rigid vessels blood pressure is maintained; less rigid vessels deform and blood pressure is lost
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Changes in Blood Pressure During the Cardiac Cycle
• Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole; it is the highest pressure in the arteries
• Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole; it is lower than systolic pressure
• A pulse is the rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat
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Regulation of Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral resistance due to constriction of arterioles
• Vasoconstriction is the contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole walls; it increases blood pressure
• Vasodilation is the relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles; it causes blood pressure to fall
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• Vasoconstriction and vasodilation help maintain adequate blood flow as the body’s demands change
• The peptide endothelin is an important inducer of vasoconstriction
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Fig. 42-12
Ser
RESULTS
Ser
Ser CysCys —NH3+
Leu
Met
Asp
LysGlu Cys Val Tyr Phe Cys His Leu Asp Ile Ile Trp —COO–
Endothelin
Parent polypeptide
TrpCys
Endothelin
53 731
203
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Fig. 42-12a
Ser
RESULTS
Ser
Ser CysCys —NH3+
Leu
Met
Asp
LysGlu Cys Val Tyr Phe Cys His Leu Asp Ile Ile Trp —COO–
Endothelin
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Fig. 42-12b
Parent polypeptide
TrpCys
Endothelin
53 731
203
RESULTS
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Blood Pressure and Gravity
• Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart
• Blood pressure for a healthy 20 year old at rest is 120 mm Hg at systole and 70 mm Hg at diastole
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Fig. 42-13-1
Pressure in cuffgreater than120 mm Hg
Rubbercuffinflatedwith air
Arteryclosed
120
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Fig. 42-13-2
Pressure in cuffgreater than120 mm Hg
Rubbercuffinflatedwith air
Arteryclosed
120 120
Pressure in cuffdrops below120 mm Hg
Soundsaudible instethoscope
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Fig. 42-13-3
Pressure in cuffgreater than120 mm Hg
Rubbercuffinflatedwith air
Arteryclosed
120 120
Pressure in cuffdrops below120 mm Hg
Soundsaudible instethoscope
Pressure in cuff below70 mm Hg
70
Blood pressure reading: 120/70
Soundsstop
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• Fainting is caused by inadequate blood flow to the head
• Animals with longer necks require a higher systolic pressure to pump blood a greater distance against gravity
• Blood is moved through veins by smooth muscle contraction, skeletal muscle contraction, and expansion of the vena cava with inhalation
• One-way valves in veins prevent backflow of blood
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Fig. 42-14
Direction of blood flowin vein (toward heart) Valve (open)
Skeletal muscle
Valve (closed)
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Capillary Function
• Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity
• Blood supply varies in many other sites
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• Two mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds:
– Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel
– Precapillary sphincters control flow of blood between arterioles and venules
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Fig. 42-15
Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfarechannel
Arteriole
Capillaries
Venule
(a) Sphincters relaxed
(b) Sphincters contracted
Arteriole Venule
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Fig. 42-15a
Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfarechannel
Arteriole
Capillaries
Venule
(a) Sphincters relaxed
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Fig. 42-15b
(b) Sphincters contracted
Arteriole Venule
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• The critical exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries
• The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end
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Fig. 42-16
Body tissue
CapillaryINTERSTITIAL FLUID
Net fluidmovement out
Direction ofblood flow
Net fluidmovement in
Blood pressure
Inward flow
Outward flowOsmotic pressure
Arterial end of capillary Venous end
Pre
ss
ure
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Fig. 42-16a
Body tissue
CapillaryNet fluidmovement out
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
Net fluidmovement in
Direction ofblood flow
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Fig. 42-16b
Blood pressure
Inward flow
Outward flowOsmotic pressure
Arterial end of capillary Venous end
Pre
ssu
re
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Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system returns fluid that leaks out in the capillary beds
• This system aids in body defense
• Fluid, called lymph, reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system
• The lymphatic system drains into veins in the neck
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• Lymph nodes are organs that filter lymph and play an important role in the body’s defense
• Edema is swelling caused by disruptions in the flow of lymph
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Concept 42.4: Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense
• In invertebrates with open circulation, blood (hemolymph) is not different from interstitial fluid
• Blood in the circulatory systems of vertebrates is a specialized connective tissue
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Blood Composition and Function
• Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma
• The cellular elements occupy about 45% of the volume of blood
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Fig. 42-17
Plasma 55%
Constituent Major functions
Water Solvent forcarrying othersubstances
Ions (blood electrolytes)
Osmotic balance,pH buffering, andregulation ofmembranepermeability
SodiumPotassiumCalciumMagnesiumChlorideBicarbonate
Osmotic balancepH buffering
Clotting
Defense
Plasma proteins
Albumin
Fibrinogen
Immunoglobulins(antibodies)
Substances transported by blood
Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)Waste products of metabolismRespiratory gases (O2 and CO2)Hormones
Separatedbloodelements
Cellular elements 45%
Cell type FunctionsNumberper µL (mm3) of blood
Erythrocytes(red blood cells)
5–6 million Transport oxygenand help transportcarbon dioxide
Leukocytes(white blood cells)
5,000–10,000 Defense andimmunity
Basophil
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Lymphocyte
Monocyte
Platelets Blood clotting250,000–400,000
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Plasma
• Blood plasma is about 90% water
• Among its solutes are inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, sometimes called electrolytes
• Another important class of solutes is the plasma proteins, which influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, and viscosity
• Various plasma proteins function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting
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Cellular Elements
• Suspended in blood plasma are two types of cells:
– Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen
– White blood cells (leukocytes) function in defense
• Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in clotting
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• Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are by far the most numerous blood cells
• They transport oxygen throughout the body
• They contain hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that transports oxygen
Erythrocytes
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Leukocytes
• There are five major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes
• They function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies
• They are found both in and outside of the circulatory system
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Platelets
• Platelets are fragments of cells and function in blood clotting
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Blood Clotting
• When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the clotting mechanism begins
• A cascade of complex reactions converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot
• A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a thrombus and can block blood flow
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Fig. 42-18-1
Collagen fibersPlateletplug
Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby platelets sticky
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Fig. 42-18-2
Collagen fibersPlateletplug
Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby platelets sticky
Clotting factors from:
PlateletsDamaged cellsPlasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
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Fig. 42-18-3
Collagen fibersPlateletplug
Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby platelets sticky
Clotting factors from:
PlateletsDamaged cellsPlasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
Prothrombin Thrombin
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Collagen fibersPlateletplug
Platelet releases chemicalsthat make nearby platelets sticky
Clotting factors from:
PlateletsDamaged cellsPlasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
Prothrombin Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin5 µm
Fibrin clot
Red blood cell
Fig. 42-18-4
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Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements
• The cellular elements of blood wear out and are replaced constantly throughout a person’s life
• Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets all develop from a common source of stem cells in the red marrow of bones
• The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates erythrocyte production when oxygen delivery is low
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Fig. 42-19
Stem cells(in bone marrow)
Myeloidstem cells
Lymphoidstem cells
LymphocytesB cells T cells
Erythrocytes
Platelets
Neutrophils
BasophilsEosinophils
Monocytes
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Cardiovascular Disease
• Cardiovascular diseases are disorders of the heart and the blood vessels
• They account for more than half the deaths in the United States
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Atherosclerosis
• One type of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, is caused by the buildup of plaque deposits within arteries
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Fig. 42-20
Connectivetissue
Smoothmuscle Endothelium Plaque
(a) Normal artery (b) Partly clogged artery50 µm 250 µm
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Fig. 42-20a
Connectivetissue
Smoothmuscle Endothelium
(a) Normal artery 50 µm
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Fig. 42-20b
Plaque
(b) Partly clogged artery 250 µm
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Heart Attacks and Stroke
• A heart attack is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
• A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
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Treatment and Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Disease
• Cholesterol is a major contributor to atherosclerosis
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) are associated with plaque formation; these are “bad cholesterol”
• High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) reduce the deposition of cholesterol; these are “good cholesterol”
• The proportion of LDL relative to HDL can be decreased by exercise, not smoking, and avoiding foods with trans fats
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• Hypertension, or high blood pressure, promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke
• Hypertension can be reduced by dietary changes, exercise, and/or medication
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Concept 42.5: Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
• Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide
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Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the lungs and other organs as a result of differences in partial pressure
• Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
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• A gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure
• In the lungs and tissues, O2 and CO2 diffuse from where their partial pressures are higher to where they are lower
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Respiratory Media
• Animals can use air or water as a source of O2, or respiratory medium
• In a given volume, there is less O2 available in water than in air
• Obtaining O2 from water requires greater efficiency than air breathing
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Respiratory Surfaces
• Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces for exchange of gases between their cells and the respiratory medium, either air or water
• Gas exchange across respiratory surfaces takes place by diffusion
• Respiratory surfaces vary by animal and can include the outer surface, skin, gills, tracheae, and lungs
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Gills in Aquatic Animals
• Gills are outfoldings of the body that create a large surface area for gas exchange
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Fig. 42-21
Parapodium (functions as gill)
(a) Marine worm
Gills
(b) Crayfish (c) Sea star
Tube foot
Coelom
Gills
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Fig. 42-21a
Parapodium (functions as gill)
(a) Marine worm
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Fig. 42-21b
Gills
(b) Crayfish
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Fig. 42-21c
(c) Sea star
Tube foot
Coelom
Gills
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• Ventilation moves the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface
• Aquatic animals move through water or move water over their gills for ventilation
• Fish gills use a countercurrent exchange system, where blood flows in the opposite direction to water passing over the gills; blood is always less saturated with O2 than the water it meets
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Fig. 42-22
Anatomy of gills
Gillarch
Waterflow Operculum
Gillarch
Gill filamentorganization
Bloodvessels
Oxygen-poor blood
Oxygen-rich blood
Fluid flowthrough
gill filament
Lamella
Blood flow throughcapillaries in lamella
Water flowbetweenlamellae
Countercurrent exchange
PO2 (mm Hg) in water
PO2 (mm Hg) in blood
Net diffu-sion of O2
from waterto blood
150 120 90 60 30
110 80 20Gill filaments
50140
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Tracheal Systems in Insects
• The tracheal system of insects consists of tiny branching tubes that penetrate the body
• The tracheal tubes supply O2 directly to body cells
• The respiratory and circulatory systems are separate
• Larger insects must ventilate their tracheal system to meet O2 demands
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Fig. 42-23
Air sacs
Tracheae
Externalopening
Bodycell
AirsacTracheole
Tracheoles Mitochondria Muscle fiber
2.5 µmBody wall
Trachea
Air
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Lungs
• Lungs are an infolding of the body surface
• The circulatory system (open or closed) transports gases between the lungs and the rest of the body
• The size and complexity of lungs correlate with an animal’s metabolic rate
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Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look
• A system of branching ducts conveys air to the lungs
• Air inhaled through the nostrils passes through the pharynx via the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli, where gas exchange occurs
• Exhaled air passes over the vocal cords to create sounds
• Secretions called surfactants coat the surface of the alveoli
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Fig. 42-24
Pharynx
Larynx
(Esophagus)
Trachea
Right lung
Bronchus
Bronchiole
DiaphragmHeart SEM
Leftlung
Nasalcavity
Terminalbronchiole
Branch ofpulmonaryvein(oxygen-richblood)
Branch ofpulmonaryartery(oxygen-poorblood)
Alveoli
ColorizedSEM50 µm 50 µm
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Concept 42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs
• The process that ventilates the lungs is breathing, the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air
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How an Amphibian Breathes
• An amphibian such as a frog ventilates its lungs by positive pressure breathing, which forces air down the trachea
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How a Mammal Breathes
• Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing, which pulls air into the lungs
• Lung volume increases as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
• The tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled with each breath
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• The maximum tidal volume is the vital capacity
• After exhalation, a residual volume of air remains in the lungs
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Fig. 42-25
Lung
Diaphragm
Airinhaled
Rib cageexpands asrib musclescontract
Rib cage getssmaller asrib musclesrelax
Airexhaled
EXHALATIONDiaphragm relaxes
(moves up)
INHALATIONDiaphragm contracts
(moves down)
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How a Bird Breathes
• Birds have eight or nine air sacs that function as bellows that keep air flowing through the lungs
• Air passes through the lungs in one direction only
• Every exhalation completely renews the air in the lungs
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Fig. 42-26
Anteriorair sacs
Posteriorair sacs Lungs
Air
Lungs
Air
1 mm
Trachea
Air tubes(parabronchi)in lung
EXHALATIONAir sacs empty; lungs fill
INHALATIONAir sacs fill
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Control of Breathing in Humans
• In humans, the main breathing control centers are in two regions of the brain, the medulla oblongata and the pons
• The medulla regulates the rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid
• The medulla adjusts breathing rate and depth to match metabolic demands
• The pons regulates the tempo
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• Sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood
• These sensors exert secondary control over breathing
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Fig. 42-27
Breathingcontrolcenters
Cerebrospinalfluid
Pons
Medullaoblongata
Carotidarteries
Aorta
Diaphragm
Rib muscles
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Concept 42.7: Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
• The metabolic demands of many organisms require that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2
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Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange
• Blood arriving in the lungs has a low partial pressure of O2 and a high partial pressure of CO2 relative to air in the alveoli
• In the alveoli, O2 diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses into the air
• In tissue capillaries, partial pressure gradients favor diffusion of O2 into the interstitial fluids and CO2 into the blood
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Fig. 42-28
Alveolus
PO2 = 100 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 PO2
= 100
PO2 = 100PO2
= 40
Circulatorysystem
Body tissue
PO2 ≤ 40 mm Hg PCO2
≥ 46 mm Hg
Body tissue
PCO2 = 46 PCO2
= 40
PCO2 = 40PCO2
= 46
Circulatorysystem
PCO2 = 40 mm Hg
Alveolus
(b) Carbon dioxide(a) Oxygen
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Respiratory Pigments
• Respiratory pigments, proteins that transport oxygen, greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry
• Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin with copper as the oxygen-binding component
• Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use hemoglobin contained within erythrocytes
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Hemoglobin
• A single hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of O2
• The hemoglobin dissociation curve shows that a small change in the partial pressure of oxygen can result in a large change in delivery of O2
• CO2 produced during cellular respiration lowers blood pH and decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2; this is called the Bohr shift
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Fig. 42-UN1
Chains
IronHeme
Chains
Hemoglobin
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Fig. 42-29
O2 unloadedto tissuesat rest
O2 unloadedto tissues
during exercise
100
40
0
20
60
80
0 40 80 100
O2 s
atu
rati
on
of
he
mo
glo
bin
(%
)
20 60
Tissues duringexercise
Tissuesat rest
Lungs
PO2 (mm Hg)
(a) PO2 and hemoglobin dissociation at pH 7.4
O2
sa
tura
tio
n o
f h
em
og
lob
in (
%)
40
0
20
60
80
0 40 80 10020 60
100
PO2 (mm Hg)
(b) pH and hemoglobin dissociation
pH 7.4
pH 7.2
Hemoglobinretains lessO2 at lower pH
(higher CO2
concentration)
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Fig. 42-29a
O2 unloadedto tissuesat rest
O2 unloadedto tissues
during exercise
100
40
0
20
60
80
0 40 80 100
O2 s
atu
rati
on
of
hem
og
lob
in (
%)
20 60
Tissues duringexercise
Tissuesat rest
Lungs
PO2 (mm Hg)
(a) PO2 and hemoglobin dissociation at pH 7.4
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Fig. 42-29b
O2
satu
rati
on
of
hem
og
lob
in (
%)
40
0
20
60
80
0 40 80 10020 60
100
PO2 (mm Hg)
(b) pH and hemoglobin dissociation
pH 7.4pH 7.2
Hemoglobinretains lessO2 at lower pH(higher CO2
concentration)
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Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Hemoglobin also helps transport CO2 and assists in buffering
• CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the blood and is transported either in blood plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate ions (HCO3
–)Animation: OAnimation: O22 from Blood to Tissues from Blood to Tissues
Animation: COAnimation: CO22 from Tissues to Blood from Tissues to Blood
Animation: COAnimation: CO22 from Blood to Lungs from Blood to Lungs
Animation: OAnimation: O22 from Lungs to Blood from Lungs to Blood
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Fig. 42-30Body tissue
CO2 produced
CO2 transportfrom tissues
Capillarywall
Interstitialfluid
Plasmawithin capillary
CO2
CO2
CO2
Redbloodcell
H2O
H2CO3 HbCarbonic acid
Hemoglobinpicks up
CO2 and H+
CO2 transportto lungs
HCO3–
BicarbonateH++
Hemoglobinreleases
CO2 and H+
To lungsHCO3
–
HCO3–
Hb
H++HCO3–
H2CO3
H2O
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
Alveolar space in lung
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Fig. 42-30a
Body tissue
CO2 produced
CO2 transportfrom tissues
Interstitialfluid
CO2
CO2
CO2
Plasmawithin capillary
Capillarywall
H2O
H2CO3
Carbonic acid
Redbloodcell
Hemoglobinpicks up
CO2 and H+Hb
H+HCO3–
Bicarbonate+
HCO3–
To lungs
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Fig. 42-30b
HCO3–
HCO3– H++
CO2 transportto lungs
Hemoglobinreleases
CO2 and H+
HbH2CO3
H2O
CO2
Plasma withinlung capillary
CO2
CO2
CO2
Alveolar space in lung
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Elite Animal Athletes
• Migratory and diving mammals have evolutionary adaptations that allow them to perform extraordinary feats
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The Ultimate Endurance Runner
• The extreme O2 consumption of the antelope-like pronghorn underlies its ability to run at high speed over long distances
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Fig. 42-31
GoatPronghorn
RESULTS
100
90
70
60
80
50
40
30
20
10
0
Rel
ativ
e va
lues
(%
)
VO2
max
Lungcapacity
Cardiacoutput
Musclemass
Mitochon-drial volume
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Diving Mammals
• Deep-diving air breathers stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly
• Weddell seals have a high blood to body volume ratio and can store oxygen in their muscles in myoglobin proteins
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Fig. 42-UN2Inhaled air Exhaled air
Alveolarepithelial cells
Alveolar spaces
CO2 O2
CO 2 O2
Alveolarcapillaries of
lung
Pulmonary veinsPulmonary arteries
Systemic veins Systemic arteries
Heart
SystemiccapillariesCO
2 O 2
CO2 O2
Body tissue
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Fig. 42-UN3
Fetus
Mother
100
80
60
40
20
00 20 40 60 80
O2 s
atu
rati
on
of
hem
og
lob
in (
%)
100
PO2 (mm Hg)
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Fig. 42-UN4
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You should now be able to:
1. Compare and contrast open and closed circulatory systems
2. Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds
3. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each
4. Trace the path of a red blood cell through the human heart, pulmonary circuit, and systemic circuit
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5. Define cardiac cycle and explain the role of the sinoatrial node
6. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their function
7. Define blood pressure and cardiac output and describe two factors that influence each
8. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across the capillary walls
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9. Describe the role played by the lymphatic system in relation to the circulatory system
10. Describe the function of erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, fibrin
11. Distinguish between a heart attack and stroke
12. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of water and of air as respiratory media
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13. For humans, describe the exchange of gases in the lungs and in tissues
14. Draw and explain the hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve