chapter - ivshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/109208/8/08_chapter 4.pdfchapter - iv custom...
TRANSCRIPT
161
CHAPTER - IV
Custom and its Varied Manifestations
A practice that reasonably establishes itself for certain amount of time among a
group of people will be known as usage. When the usages is extended to the community
in general and it finds its acceptance over a considerable period of time then it turns into
a custom. Thus, customs are long established usages or mode of behavior. 1
Customs are social habits and through repetition become the basis of an order of
social behavior.2
Custom refers primarily to practices that have been oft-repeated by a multitude of
generations, practices that tend to be followed simply because they have been followed in
the past.3 Customs and traditions are group-accepted techniques of control that have
become well established, that are taken for granted and that are passed along from
generation to generation. The uniform approved ways of acting we follow are customs,
transmitted from generation to generation, by tradition and usually made effective by
social approval.4
Customs has been the earliest means of social regulations. They have not grown
in any community by a conscious effort but by an imperceptible process of growth as a
reflex from the feelings of order, justice and utility that existed in minds of the people. 5
The most conspicuous social customs of the region is the object of worship of
local deities known as Jatheras or ancestral mound. The Jatheras represented either elder
of the clan or common ancestor of the village, tribe or caste. The place of Jathera was
often taken by the theh or mound which marked the site of the original village of the clan.
Such godlings, other than Jatheras were Bhumia (the god of homestead) and panchpir.
Bhumia was generally one of the founders of the village. It was established that the first
person who died in the village after its foundation became panchpir and the second one
was Bhumia.6 A some what similar local deity was chanwand or khero deota, sometimes
described as wife of Bhumia. Bhumia was generally worshipped at marriage, on the birth
162
of male child and after the harvests. The first milk of cow or buffalo was always offered
there and some quality of unused stored ghee (sucha) before bringing it into use. On the
name of other village deities, there were miniature brick shrines from one to two feet
cube in height with bulbous top and perhaps an iron spikes as finial, in the interior of
which pamps were burnt and offerings placed, containing no icons or carved slabs. 7
The study of the social customs of a region is of immense important as it provides
essential basis for understanding the social structure of the region. As far as the Jammu
region is concerned, as elsewhere in India, a variety of social customs have been
prevalent since long. But the literary data to understand the origin of the prevalent
customs is lacking. Therefore, the only possibility is to collect the information from the
oral traditions which are coming down from generations to generation without muc h
change.
Oral tradition is a way of transmitting history, literature or laws from one
generation to the other in a civilization without any writing system. It not only
supplements the traditional sources but also helps in filling up the gaps in history where
former evidences is lacking, where there is no history or almost none, oral tradition must
bear the brunt of historical reconstruction.8 Therefore, oral traditions are the main source
of information about customs of Jammu region whether they are related to birth,
marriage, death, fast, fairs, festivals, food habits, dress-up, etc. These oral traditions are
transmitted from one generation to another in the form of folk songs, folk-tales, folk-
dances, ballads, skits, plays, superstitions, proverbs, Idioms, riddles, and beliefs, etc.
The social customs and ceremonies followed by the people of Jammu region were
very similar to that followed by the people all over India. However there are some local
variations due to some prevailing local situations and also the kind of contacts they had
with people outside the locality from time to time. Therefore, the people of Jammu region
followed the distinct mode of life style, habits and customs.
Folk songs - There was a long series of folk songs associated with all types of social
customs and were sung on every occasion from birth of a child to the death of a man.
163
Folk songs - songs related with birth
1. Bihain
Ambadiya migi sund bheji, teye bandi sarika khaya!
Ambadiya migi sees diti, teye kod belhi sai feleya!9
There was a custom prevailed in Jammu region that at the time of Reetain
ceremony different Pakwans , fruits and other things including Sund made of dry fruits
and dessi ghee were send to the expected mother from her parents with a lot of blessing.
There was also a custom that these things were distributed in the neighborhood. This can
be indicated by song mentioned above.
2. Ghar nand ji de bajan badhian,
Ghar nand ji de!
Bajan badhain te chadan kadaian,
Ghar nand ji de! 10
There was also the custom of celebrating the occasion of the birth of a male child
which could be seen by this song. The main thing in this songs was that every new born
was treated as lord Krishna and his mother as Yasodha and father as Nand Baba.
Whenever there was the birth of a male child the occasion was celebrated with great
festivity. People from the community came to their house and wished them and sang
songs of happiness and sweets were distributed among them. In this way an idea about
the social life of the people of Jammu region can be trace from this song. It also revealed
the custom of celebrating the birth of male child and discrimination towards the female
child as there was not any mention of such types of custom of singing such song on the
birth of a female child. The reason behind this thing was that girls were considered as
economic burden on their parents.
164
The birth of the son was a matter of great rejoicing. The family attained religious
merit and happiness in this as well as in the next world through the service and
obligations of the sons and grandsons.11
3. Kahey di Teri baniya katori
Kahe gudti gholi!
Sone di meri baniya katory,
Patashe gudti gholi!12
There was also a custom prevailed in Jammu region that immediately after birth the new
born was licked milk, ghee, or honey. This was known as Jatakarma Sanskara but in
Jammu region it was known as Gurhti.
4. Badhawa
Bhabhi meri hira janmeya,
Lal janmeya,
Ke Nande gi degi badhai,
Meri Rani bhabhi!
Nande! Tere perai pichhe, Nande ! tere bhage,
Hari ne meri kadar banai,
Tu munha da bol hah Nande!
Ke laggi tu aaj badhai 13
This song was a sort of conversation between nand and bhabhi. Whenever, there
was the birth of a male child nand got an opportunity to extract garments, ornaments or
cash money from her bhabhi. The song mentioned above also indicated that nand gave
well wishes to her bhabhi on the occasion of the birth of her son and in return her bhabhi
gave credit to her that it was only because of her good luck that she gave birth to a male
child and with happy hearted wanted to pay everything whatever she wanted in return of
this happiness. These songs also show the high position of the sister- in- law.
165
Lorian
Joote te jatare, Maamein gil pyare!
Maaman ping batai ja, uchcha taali pai ja!
Uchche taale paija, badda jhoota dei ja!14
This song was sung by the mother to make her child sleep
Sutra te naamkaran
Ikkye dine da baba bhagi,
Mata suchi hoi
Te kanne lain sutra pai!15
On twenty one day of birth, house was considered as sootak free called as sucha
hona in local language. Among some communities Sutra ceremony was performed on
this day.
Sagane mahurate janm ladke da
Aounsh narene lai
Rasi kehda ja darya
Te bhagi na rakhai!16
There was also a custom that on this day Naamkaran ceremony of the child was
performed. Bua of the child gave him a name by calling in his ear.
Mundan sanskara
Veera aei a munnane yali raat
Galia mat firana!
Veera aei a sagane bali raat
Galia mat firna!17
This period was considered as of weak stars so child was not allowed to go out of home.
166
Songs related with marriage
1. Badhawa or badhai
These songs were sung on the auspicious occasions like birth of male child, sutra
ceremony, mundan ceremony, janeo, saant, sehra-bandi and vivah.
Tikka judeya da aaya,
Lag sanu deir!
Tui lao mere vira,
lagi sanu deir!18
This song was sung on occasion of tikka ceremony. Badhawa songs were sung on
the many other occasions like saant, gandia, gana, sehra, ghori chadana jaanni, pojeki,
laadi, nandredna, kumb badhai, badhu parvesh, etc.
Godiya
The songs sung on the marriage of boy were called Godiya.
Mera vira, sunneda vira, Roundi kashmira!
Beda bajjan baje, Jaani sobhan raje!
Vira di janni chali ai.”19
These songs were sung at the time of preparation of marriage procession and the
grooms riding the horse before leaving for bride’s house. In these songs women praised
the mare, the bridegroom, and the barat.
Pehla tamool teri mau da aya,
Mau ne katya babal banbaya!
Panj rapaye kanne panna de beeda,
Lai jaya ladya sees noyai!20
This song indicated that there was the custom of giving money to groom as
tamool at the time of sehra bandi. The first tamool was given by her mother.
167
Bhanna bag fadan je aie veera,
O te mangdiya lakh badhaia veera!
And
Janda bhenu ne rokaya,
Dai ja dal charai!21
There was also a custom that sisters of groom tied Ganna to mare and also offered
channa daal to her at the time of janni bardana. In return they took lagg from groom.
Ke kis dega dera surma puyai,
ke kis dega sadhe lag he rams! 22
These songs were sung by bhabhi while putting surma in eyes of her Dewar.
Suhag
Maadhaniya, haiyo, merya dadya rabha,
Kenne janiya te keena la janiya23
These songs were sung on the marriage of a girl which revealed the grievances of
her parents and the auspicious indications of the wishes of the girls, friends and parents
for her long happy married life.
Sitanian / Bolian
Bhor kashmira da aaya, Bhor kashmira da aaya a!
Jije de maayu gir beno, thunga laaya!
Thunga laaya, bano jaala paya!24
These songs were sung on the marriage by the women from bride’s side. In these
songs sarcastic remarks were given to the bridegroom and his relatives.
Jagarna
Ajj maa munde de nache kardi,
168
Tai beil karandi !
Bua bathi peera daiya,
Mami tel chuyandi !
Ajj maa munde de nache kardi,
Tai daan karandi !25
These songs were sung when the barat took leaves from bridegrooms home. After
the departure of barat, women belonging to boy’s side indulged in dancing and singing
songs for the whole night.
Sehra
sehra lande lare gi garmi ai,
Pakkha jholai nai, belan dindi mai
These songs were sung by the women when sehra ceremony was performed in
boy’s house.
Chhand
Chhand baraag akhaya te chhand aaga kasar !
Sas meri parvati te sora mera parmeshwar !26
These were the small songs which were sung after the going back of Barat from
brides home. The bride’s sisters and friends sat around the bridegroom and compelled
him to sing chhand.
Apart from these songs related to marriage, there were many other songs which
were sung at the time of vedee, kanyadaan, phere, tying of thread called ganna, tamool,
pani-barana, dwar-dakai and aarti-bardana.
Songs related with death
These songs were specially sung on the eve of death of any person.
169
Luhaniya
Chandan rukh badhayo,
Lammi peid banayo ji.
It was also called luhan, whenever, anybody died the women sung these luhanian.
Palla pana
Kuthe geyan malaka hai !
Kussi saanpi geyan, malaka hai!27
After the death of a person, women cried very loudly and joined their head with
each other. They wrapped their face with their dupatta and cried very loudly in a
rhythmic way and sing songs.
Kotal songs
The death of an old man was celebrated rather than mourned. Their relatives said
that
Aeth parali upper kappohan,
Chal ha budia dunge pattan,
Dikhi khari jai bair bayadi,
Lai batte bhande taryadi!
Chini khakhe de jhiyali,
Budda upper dita bayali!
Dinde lambe maran Tai,
Budda patta ni gaya kadai!28
Songs related with seasons
The people of Jammu region sung songs for every season like soha (summer),
barsaant (rainy season), sayala (winter), basaant (spring), etc. When these seasons came,
they brought certain changes with them and these changes put an impac t on the mind as
170
well as heart of the people. This impact can be seen in season songs. Some songs even
indicated the feeling of the wives whose husband has gone to some far off place. The
theme of these songs were separation from loved one and in these songs they called back
their beloved like :-
Mene deya mehrama, ghar payana phera!
Rutan aaiyan bandhian, aai ghar payan phera !
Ritadian
These songs were related to one or other season and there was no difference
between ritadian and season songs like:-
Son mahine diya badaliya, barean sanje de des!
Sajna de sije kapade, gori de sije kale keish!
Doladoo
These songs were sung by jogis, dares in the chaitra (march-April) month. They
visited the houses of people and sung on the sweet Tal of dhol. Through these songs they
told the people about the coming years name and also demanded clothes from the people.
Chaitra mahine, chaliabaah, bachade aali!
Tehle Pajji ge ruche de,
Sajan-mitra doye chaligaye,
pid patri ge dukhe de!29
Shinja
Weather song or seasonal songs were also called shinja.
Bara- maah
These songs were sort of short story. They indicated the situation of a beloved one
whose lover has gone out.
171
Festival song
People of Jammu region were very religious minded and gave very importance to
every festival like any other occasion. Many songs were also associated with various
festivals like navratas, holi, lohri, bachdua, drupadi, diwali, karwa chauth, rutt, etc.30
Folk Ballads
Ballad was a comparatively long, impersonal narrative song, which depicted a
single incident or incidents through the content, style and designation of the folk. It was
easily understood by almost all members of folk group, learnt and transmitted through
oral tradition from generation to generation. 31 Folk Ballads of Jammu region were of two
types- Baran and Karkas and were sung by the folk singers known as gardi or yogi and
dares. These were the typical features of Jammu region.
Bar was a corruption of the Hindi word “Bir” which means brave or chivalrous.32
The theme of the baran was mostly heroic exploits of folk heroes, the singer played on
sarangi or chakra with the help of gaz (Bow) to which bunches of ghunghrus were ties.
Their tinkling echo was also used by the singers to heighten the effect. The baran were
long and could be sung for hours together. The special feature of this song was that each
line ended in a considerable prolonged sound of terminal ‘e’. 33 The famous baran of
Jammu region was of Raja Mandlik, raja Modi, Mirdas Chauhan, Raja Hins, Hira hiran,
etc.34
Karkas/Karkan
These were long songs which depicted the size of history of a local deity
(kuldevta) on the eve of religious ceremonies. Karkas have a religious and spiritual
character. The famous karkan of Jammu region were of Baba Jitto, Data Ranpat Dev Ji,
Data Virpanath, Baba Sidh Goriya, Baba Surgal, Baba Paid, Baba Bhoto, Baba
Gorkhnath and Baba Bhairo Nath, etc.35
172
Bhakan/Pakhan
The simplest, the most natural, spontaneous and requiring no aid of a musical
instruments. It was the group of a rustic song called bhakan or pakhan. This type of songs
was sung in group, and was most popular in Udhampur, Kathua and Jammu hill states.
One singer gave the lead, placing one hand on his ear and waning the other in the
air according to the rise and fall of the burden of song that was for maintaining the
rhythm and harmony among the group, similarly one voice rides all other of the chorus to
maintain harmony and sur- tal of the song. On special occasion like fair and festivals
group singers sang pakhan all through the night. Even women indulged in singing
bhakhan.36
Masan or lehran
The song aiming at exorcising of ghosts, bhuta and spirits formed a separated
class by themselves. These were known as Masan or lehran and were technically
performed by jogis and gararis with the accompaniment of dhol, ghara and thali. A rope
was tied in the middle of the ceiling and victim was made to sit there holding the rope.
Jogis and gararis recited mysterious hymns called Masan accompanied by the music of
drum and thali played on ghara. Under the influence of this music, the victim would
gradually start tossing her head right and left increasing the movement and intensity till
she violently played holding the rope. This continued for some hours together. The
process was repeated for seven or more days till it was declared by the doala that the
Masan has been agreed to free the victim such chaukies were held during the rainy
season and during the night.37
Bhakti songs
The bhakti songs of Jammu region were divided into two parts.
1. People of Jammu region have divine faith in local deities like Vaishno Devi,
Sukrala Mata, Babe Balli Mata, Kali Mata, Chichi Mata, etc. They have complete
173
faith in these devis and devoted many songs to these deities. These songs were
known as Bhainta.38
2. The songs which were related with the ten incarnation of Vishnu were known as
Vishanpatte. It derived from the word Vishanupad.39
Proverbs and Ideoms
The proverbs are the store house of information. They gave information about
every aspect of Men’s life. The way of thinking, beliefs, can also be seen in these
proverbs. These were very commonly and freely spoken by almost all the people
concerning different strata of society in this region.
Riddles
Riddles also occupy an important place in the life of people of Jammu region. The
elders pose these riddles to children at the time of narrating stories and the children try to
find out the meaning of these riddles. Gentle humor, creative imagination and glimpses of
the life of people inhabiting these areas were revealed through these riddles. 40
Manifestation of customs
Pre – Nuptial Customs
Reetain/Thoya
On the eight or fifteenth day of the shukla Paksha (bright fortnight) of the eight
month of conception, 4141 the parents of expected mother send her different types of fried
and cooked meals like gheur, mathian, khamire, papad, pakaurian, phullwarian, dahi –
bare, chhole, sweets, suchiya, etc., along with clothes and cosmetics.42 This was known
as Linda in Jammu region.43 Some of these were offered to the pregnant women and rest
were distributed among the community members. The kul-purohitani as well as ladies of
community was invited. The expected mother was made to sit on peerha (wooden chair)
and wore yellow or pink color clothes (according to the customs) which were given by
her parents. The nayan (female barber) combed her hair and bihaian songs were sung by
174
the ladies assembled there which were akin of ceremony, praying and wishing safe
delivery, particularly of a male child.44
This sanskara was known as Pumsavana or Simantonayana Samskara in the
Dharma Shastra but in Jammu region it was known as thaoya, reeta. This custom was
performed as a sort of medium of declaration to the community of the news of pregnancy.
At the beginning of ninth month of the pregnancy a special kind of dish called sund was
also send to expected mother by her parents. It was made up of dried fruits fried in the
desi ghee.45
In this month special arrangements were made. The first thing was to select a
suitable room in the house. On an auspicious day, it was selected in the convenient
direction and called as the sutika bhavan or maternity house.46 The delivery was usually
conducted in her in- law’s house; therefore, she remained here after the thaoya ceremony
majority of people conducted the deliveries at their homes with the help of an
experienced lady called dai.47
Birth customs
Immediately, after the birth of the child, a bit of honey mixed with ghee was put
into the mouth of the child by means of gold ring.48 This was known as ghurhot in Jammu
region,49 but was called as Jatakarma samakara in Vishnudharmottra Purana where it is
mentioned that after birth child was to be made to lick the powder of various herbs mixed
with purified butter.50 The birth of female child was not celebrated with great rejoining
and was considered as a grave misfortune, as her parents has to bear heavy financial
burden in connection with her marriage and subsequent ceremonies.
On the other hand the birth of male child was celebrated with great rejoining.
Among Hindu the birth of son was a religious necessity because a son was considered as
support in old age and essential for the performance of certain rites and ceremonies after
death of his parents, which secure his parents salvation. After the birth of the child, house
was considered as polluted for the period of twenty one days which was called “sootak”.
175
For the members of community it was observed for thirteen days in case of boy and five
days of girl, twenty-one days for family members and forty days for the parents of the
new born.51 On the fifth day, the first purificatory bath was given to both mother and
child. This was known as panjab in Jammu region. Ganga jal and gootra (cow’s urine)
was given to both mother and child as a part of purificatory rite. Karah was distributed
amongst relatives and friends who came to congratulate the family. 52 The father of the
child summered the kul purohits enquired about the child. The purohit consulted the
janam patri and told everything related to child, his parentage, ruling constellation, and
about future prospects. The ladies from the community came to see the child and mother.
They took milk with them and gave money called sagun or dudh de paise to mother.53
Sutra
The sutra ceremony was performed on the eleventh or thirteenth day of the birth
of the child. A purificatory bath was given to both mother and the child. The family
panditani or Kul- purohitani was called and with durba grass and pipal leaves she made
both of them to relish gutra (cow’s urine) and Ganga jal. Then the mother was made to
sit on peerah with the child in her lap. A thread of red color called khamni or mouli (In
Jammu region) was tied to the peerha.
The ladies of the community came to attend the occasion. Both child and mother
were made to wear yellow or pink color clothes (according to the custom) which were
given by her parent. The unspun cotton thread was tied around the neck of both mother
and child. The custom was known as kachi tand pana.54 Most of the people of Jammu
region conducted only informal sutra ceremony on the eleventh or thirteenth day and
arranged formal feast and function later on, according to the mahurat and arranged it with
the mundan ceremony.55 On the twenty first day the final purificatory bath was given to
both mother and child. Both of them were given gutra and Ganga jal along with other
family members. The Ganga jal was sprinkled in the home and whole house was
considered as free from sootak.56
176
Nama Karana
This ceremony was enjoined when the time of impurity was over or on any
auspicious day when soft constellations were in conjuction. Many factors were kept into
consideration while naming a child especially the social status of the child. The name of a
Brahman ought to be auspicious, that of a kshatriya should denote power, of a vaisya
wealth and of sudre- contempt. The name giving should be according to one’s family
tradition.57 Generally, nama karan or name giving ceremony of child was held on an
exact auspicious mahurat fixed by kul- purohit after consultation of the janam – patri. In
some communities, the child was given the name by his paternal aunt (bua) while in other
communities it was given by kul-purohit with consultation of janam – patri and was
strictly kept secret with fear of its being used by an ill intentioned person and a nick name
was also given to the child. Usually the name was given to the child a fter the expiry of
the period of confinement which was considered as the period of sootak.58 The name
given to child must have a letter of the word referring to the nakshtra or asterism under
which the child was born.59
Mundan
It was an important ceremony in which the head of child was entirely shaved.
There was no fixed time for performing this ceremony. It could be in the first, third, fifth
and any year of odd number. An auspicious mahurat was fixed by the pandit with the
consultations of janam parti.
It was performed before the family deity to whom the family women sung prayer
and propitiatory songs. The ceremony began with the throwing of water over the goat and
shaking its head was considered as a sign of the acceptance of the offering by the deity. It
was called as bijna latter on the goat was sacrificed. A great meal called dhaam was
served to all relatives and friends.60
Some clans like Jamwal and Sambyal performed mundan at the shrine of Bahu
fort, Charak at the shrine of Data Ranpat Devji at Birpur. Among Manhas and a few
177
other communities the celebration was attended with symbolic sacrifice of goat at the
kuldevata’s dehra or shrine.61 Chib performed this ceremony at the shrine of kul-devta at
Nad near Akhnoor.62 Bhau performed this ceremony on the dehra of their Kul-devta Baba
Accho at Khwara (Kaleeth). The goat was sacrificed but only in a symbolic way. They
offered goat in the name of Baba and when his head shivering it was considered as bijna
and he was let free rather than cut it.63 Some took the child to a barber and got his hair cut
without any ceremony. Others performed it according to the shastra and held great
celebration and also invited their kith and kins. The low castes like megh, batwals, kalis,
sansis, perne, dum-mahashas, performed all the shastric ceremonies concerning
childhood except that of jajna paved (Thread wearing) which was denied to then by the
scriptures.64
Niskramana and Annaprasana
Both these samskaras were observed among the people of Jammu region but in a
modified way. They were performed among the people of higher castes like Brahmans,
Rajput and Khatris, etc., and when child completed six months. In some communities like
Sambyal this was known as Chhatiya.65
Bhumau Upavesana
It was to be performed in the fifth month after birth. The god Varaha and the
goddess Prthvi (earth) were to be worshipped. The preceptor and Brahmana were to be
honored. Then besmearing a portion of surface of the earth and drawing a circle on it, the
child was to sit on it in accompaniment of the sound of conches and recitation of the
Vedika mantras. After placing the child on the floor, a feast was also served to the
brahmanas.66 This custom is still followed by some communities of Jammu region like
the Sambyal clan of village bara district samba, but only in case of male child.
Vidyaramba
This samskara was also performed in the Jammu region but not in its original
form, but in a symbolic way. When a child was admitted in the school for the first time
178
some sweet was distributed among the family members. Usually the child was admitted
in the school during the Navratras.67
Marriage customs
Marriage or vivaha was the most pious samskara of man’s life. It laid the
foundation of domestic life and considered as the means of perpetuation and continuation
of Vamsa or Kula.68 The girl to be married should not be of same gotra and pravara. She
should be seventh in succession from father’s side and fifth from that of the mother.69
The normal marriage was arranged by the parents of the couple and after much
consultation of the janam patri or horoscope by the pundits.
The marriage customs started with kurmai or betrothal. Generally, the marriage
was settled by negotiation between the parent of bride and bride groom. The negotiation
was initiated by a middle man called ravara70 and fixed with the consent of both the
parties. The heads of both the families called the kula – purohit to match the horoscope of
both the girl and the boy. After satisfaction that both were suitable match for each other,
fixed the date for kurmai.
A ceremony called Roka or thakka (in local language) was performed in which
the father, taya, Chacha, and others male elders of the bride’s family went to the home of
bridegroom and applied a tilak on his forehead with the proper ritual performed by the
purohit. The money was also given to the groom in the form of shagun. Now, this shagun
could be any amount of money but according to the custom it was Rs1.25 only71 besides
this sweet, fruits, clothes to the boy’s family members and some cash money to his near
relatives were also given. The main purpose of celebrating this occasion was to make
betrothal publically accepted in the presence of biradari. After the completion of this
ceremony another ceremonies called shagun and marriage was fixed with the
consultation of purohit and other near relatives, etc.
After the fixation of date it was notify on an invitation written on paper dyed with
saffron to make the jubilation and solemnity of the auspicious occasion called lagan or
179
neidra. This invitation was sent to all the kith and kins by both the parties and a general
feasting and rejoining was started for fifteen to twenty days before the actual ceremony. 72
A day before or the same day of marriage the next ceremony called shagun was
performed in which the bride’s brothers went to groom’s home. A tilak was affixed on
the forehead of groom and an ornament of gold was given to him. The most important
things sent by bride’s parents were druba, earlier of druba grass now of gold, chandi ki
koli (silver bowl), sehra rumaal,etc.
There was also the custom of sending thaals known as shagun ka thaal, which
consisted of dry fruits called meba in local language, patashe, misri and was wrapped by
red cloth called luhan. All the preceding was done in the presence of kul – purohit and
other biradari members and relatives. Folk songs like badhawa were song by the ladies.73
Sagan lena
There were some customs which were followed in both the houses like sagan
lena, saant pakana, ganna, tel chinchana, saant, eating ghiur, etc. An auspicious
mahurat was fixed by consulting the pandit. All the ladies of community were invited.
The mother of the bride/ bridegroom wore nath called balu in local language and a pink
dupatta decorated with kanari. The earthen chulla, a nithi and jajjru were made which
were dried in the sun light. They were coated with cow dung and painted with parola and
decorated with different colors. On this chulla, saant was cooked and in the nithi, havan
was performed. Five small sticks of Ber wood were made called as banyalia. khamani
was tied to the chajj, chhanani, chakki and banyalia. Seven thread of red color were
prepared which were kept in the daras. This was known as khulle sagan with which
started the marriage rituals.
Sagan Peene
Women from community assembled in the evening and grinded the sagan in the
Chakki known as sagan peena. On the day of saant women assembled early in the
morning under the shadow of stars and prepare a special type of eatable called badakune,
180
and small babriya, etc. on the chulla of sagun. At this time mother wore a pink dupatta
and balu. This was known as saant pakana. badhawa songs were sung by the ladies.74 It
was a believe that this time was considered as the time of weak stars on the part of both
bride and groom so rite called ganna was performed in which pandit after worshipping
the god Ganesha and other nine planets tied a mouli on the wrist of both bride and groom
in their respective homes.75 After this they were not allowed to go out of home alone.
Chindaly kholana
This custom was performed only in bride’s house before tel chichana ceremony.
Tel cinchana
The mother of bride or groom worshiped a small girl called kanjak in local
dialect. A mouli was wrapped to druba grass and kept on the head of the bride or groom.
First of all kanjak put a coin in the oil and with the druba grass put oil in the hair called
tel cinchana next mother and then one by one all other members put oil in hair and also
gave money to nayan and chiri as bandara. Folk songs were sung by the ladies. The bride
groom was taken out by some other member of the family or friend and made to sit on a
chowki with a mouli tied on it. Nai played an instrument called kehl before saant so that
people came to know about the saant ceremony.76 Kanjak rubbed butana on the right
shoulder of bride or groom. Next mother and then others applied it to hands, face and
feet. Butana was a paste made from sandal wood, turmeric and rose water. Both of them
were given a purificatory bath called saant.77 After bath they were covered by a black
blanket and made to stand on the chowki by maternal uncle.78
Maternal uncle hold a utensil called gadwa full of water and stood opposite in
direction to bride or groom and then circumambulates around them while dropping water
from the gadwa and women also stood there holding the mango leaves and sang songs.79
Mama gave shagun in the form of money and made her or him stand and took inside.
When he or she was taken inside a doona or a small earthen plate called chapani was
kept in the door with two small chapaties called babria, rice and flowers in it, bride or
181
groom hit it with feet and came inside. The custom of saant was performed under the
supervision of niyani and chiri. They were given money called Bandra. Mother cleaned
the place where saant was held with her hand; she crossed the chowki for seven times and
kept it on the roof. She put a mark of her hand on the wall.80
The pandit performed the navgraha pujan. Toran a structure made of wooden
rods triangularly arranged in such a way that each rod has a number of wooden images of
birds. It was of red color and erected after saant on the frame of the main door to ward
off the ill effects of evil eyes.81 A cord made of mango leaves was also hung in the main
door as mango leaves were considered very pious. The bride was given chudda, ballu,
kalire, challiyan and sallu to wear by her maternal uncle.82 The blackgram (channe)
which were soaked in the water a day before were distributed among the ladies who came
to attend the saant.83
A holy jag called dhaam or saanti da bhat in local language was served.84 The
hawan was performed by the Pandit. Bride or bridegroom with their parents and maternal
uncle and aunt sat in the hawan and gave ahuti with the surche. In the end burj was kept
in the hawan and a purna ahuti was given by everybody present there. With this saant
ceremony was performed.85 Then Bride or groom was given ghiur to eat along with
friend.86
Barat or Marriage Procession
In the evening, the bridegroom was dressed in a formal married suit called
Achkan87 now shervani (as per-trend) with a golden veil (sehra) on the head and a sword
in the hand. The Rumaal of shagun was wrapped on the sehra. This was done under the
supervision of Pundit.88 The bride groom was made to sit on a chair and starting from his
mother one by one all the relatives, friends, family members came and gave cash money
in his hand called tamool. Folk songs were sung by the ladies.89 Sister- in- law (bhabhi)
puts surma (collyrium) in the eyes of bridegroom. There was the custom of sitting on
well decorated mare by the bridegroom called ghori chadana. The sisters of bridegroom
offered pulse (channa dal) to mare and tied red thread called gana to the mare. Both
182
bhabhi and sisters took their lags.90 Then accompanied by his parents he went to village
temple to take blessing.91
After this bridegroom left for bride house with other family members and
relatives. This was known as barat or jani bardana.92 All the male members
accompanied the barat, while all the women remained at grooms home. They performed
jagrana for the whole night.93
When jani (Barat) reached the bride house a special instrument called kehl was
played by nai. Milani was held between father, mother and mama of both sides. This
custom was common to all castes of Jammu region except for the Rajput where the
milani of mothers was done at a later stage.94 In milani there was a general distribution of
presents between both the parties and money was thrown out. Then whole Barat except
bridegroom had to take meal. He took it separately after the barat has gone.95 There was
not the custom of taking bridegroom directly to bride’s house. The arrangement for his
stay was made in someone else house called lohe aala kar and taken in brides home on
mahurat.96
The actual marriage took place at an auspicious mahurat fixed by the purohit. It
began with inner vedee rite also called lagan or andarwali veda which started with Vedic
mantras. This was performed inside the home in front of Dares. When bridegroom
entered the room he put his sehra down, the bride’s father washed his foot and her
brother gave him a cloth called as barani to sit. This was given as a sort of respect to the
son- in- law.97
The gifts sent by bridegroom’s side called Barasui was displayed to the ladies
assembled here and chakk, paranda, suhagpura, kalihar, were given to bride because in
the outer vedee she has to sit by wearing all the things. The bride sat in the vedee by
wearing the dress given by her maternal uncle. The whole expenses of vedee was done by
bride’s side because it was considered as against the dharma to spent money of grooms
side in the vedee.98 The other important thing performed in the inner vedee was the
kanyadan.
183
The outer vedee was set-up and sacred fire lit in the courtyard of bride’s house.
Women from the locality assembled there and sang songs descriptive of marriage life.99
Vedee was a palanquin shaped square structure erected over the four small pillars placed
at each corner, joined at the top by horizontal rods with a flower in centre where all the
rods converged to form a dome-shape structure. Under this structure only, with the
recitation of Vedic hymns, the matrimonial ceremony was performed. The hawan kund
was centrally placed.100 The bride and groom seated opposite but near one another.101
Pandit recited the mantras and asked the groom to hold the right hand of the bride. This
ceremony was symbolic of taking the charge and responsibility of the girl and was called
as panigrahana or grasping the brides hand ceremony.102
Mounting the stone
In order to make the wife firm in her devotion and fidelity to him, husband made
her tread on a stone to north of the fire, with her right foot. The ceremony was symbolical
of firmness and strength in crushing the enemies. This ceremony was known as
Asmarahona or mounting the stone.103 Stone in this ceremony was symbolic of firmness
and strength in crushing the enemies.104
Agni paradakshana or phera
Then the young couple was made to stand up, facing east, with garments tied
together called Joel. They went five times around the sacred fire, each circuit being made
in seven steps, while the pandit recited mantras from the Vedas. 105 The brothers of bride
stood behind the couple while the couple faced each other. The bride placed both her
hands into the groom’s hand, her brother then put the puffed rice called phulia (symbol of
prosperity) into them. Together they offered this phulia as an ahuti or sacrifice into the
fire. The pandit from both the sides chanted prayers and texts from the Vedas. Women
assembled around it sang songs and beating of drums accompanied almost every portion
of the marriage service. In each phera women gave bowls to bride groom. The main
object of this ceremony was referred to a domestic felicity. Then came the ceremony
called as saat bachan in which bride put forward seven conditions to bridegroom. The
184
bridegroom accepted all things. The bride stood up and sat in the left side of the bride
groom. Now, both were considered as husband wife. Then bride was taken inside by her
friends. The next day bidai ceremony was performed.106
Gaona, pheraghera, Maklawa or hometaking
Immediately after the completion of marriage procession the bride was taken by
her bridegroom to his home. Before the arrival of bride a custom called Paruha was done
by the ladies. They were not taken home directly but they were made to sit in someone
else home called as lohe aala kar where they were given some sweet to eat and sagun.107
while newly wedded entered the main door of the house, pani barana ritual was
performed by mother, all the paternal and maternal aunts. At the same time sisters stood
in front of the main door closed their way with the mouli and in return took lag for that.
This was known as dwar dakai.108 Then both were taken in the room where deras was
place. They worshipped it and after that started the local customs.
First of all mother- in- law sat on the chair and a sort of pakwan called as sasurut
was given to her by her daughter- in- law. She touched it with her forehead then all other
maternal and paternal aunts did so. This was known as sasurut bandana. Dewar (brother-
in- law) sat in the lap of his bhabhi and took lag for that called as goad bathai. Then bride
hold a handful of gulra and coins. Gulra was given to sister- in-law and coins to father- in-
law. Groom put off his sehra and gave it to his sisters who took lagg for this. They went
to dehra of Kul-Devata for rakaida or tarage. Then they came back.109
Bride bathed, wore clothes given by her elder sister- in- law with other cosmetics
from her- in- laws side. The fully-dress-up bride was made to sit in a corner where all the
ladies from the community as well as family members and relatives came and saw the
face of bride called as munh dikhai ki rasm. They gave money to her known as masani
and in return bride touched their feet and took blessing. 110 In reality it was a form of
introductory ceremony. Another custom called as bitti buyalna was also performed.111 A
community meal called chav was served. In the evening, the bride accompanied by her
185
husband, went to her parents on her first short visit called dafera or rafera.112 After
staying here for some time they returned back to her in- laws home.
The custom of reception of a bride was very conspicuous. Generally, women draw
a big-octagonal lotus flower with happy shining colors on the floor. The bride walked on,
keeping her feet on the cotton made structure called poonian until she reached the
flowery structure where she was made to sit either on the floor or on a seat arranged over
the flower. Generally a pair of feet was painted before the entrance to the chamber
pointing the path.113
The emblem of marriage among women was the balu or nose ring which
indicated that the wearer possessed a husband. It was not worn by a widow. In regular
Hindu marriage the binding rite was the lawan phera, which could in the case of a
woman occurred only once. No physical defects subsequently could annul the relation
thereby created and the father’s control over the girl ceased with it. Bridal pair was
knotted with joal. The phera (circumbulation) of the home fire and recitation of certain
hymns of the attending purohit made the marriage an unbreakable tie for the Hindu
couple.114 The last ceremony performed in the marriage was Sattali.115
A number of customs have to be followed from time to time like for one year after
marriage the parents of bride sent many things to her in- laws home on every festival
called as tyar dena. In return, her –in- laws also sent her many gifts called tyar yana.116
Death Customs
When death was near, a pandit was called. The dying person was laid with his
bedding on the ground called bhunjan tuarna.117 The place has previously been leaped by
cow dung,118 which was known as mandali pana. This place was covered with a blanket
on which the earth of tulsi plant and druva were placed.119 Usually, the dying person
made offerings of grains cash, clothes, utensils and ornaments before death. This was
called as raskas mansan. Money was also offered to the dying person known as najari da
rapea dena.120 It was supposed that the tail of cow should be grasped by the dying person
186
at the time of death because there was the custom of giving dana of cow by the dying
person to the Brahman. This custom was still continues in the region under study. This
was done to get assistance in crossing the Vaitarni river of Hindu hell. The verses from
Bhagavad-Gita were recited to a dying person. Pandit chanted mantras called upon the
dying man to repeat one of the names of Visnu such as Ram, Narayan, Hari by doing this
it was assured salvation.121 Then panjratni (an alloy of five metals gold, silver, copper,
iron, and bronze), gangajan, tulsi leaves were put into the mouth of dying person and a
diva made of flour and desi ghee was lightened in front of him known as deeya batti
dena.122 Shankh was blown.123
All the death rituals were performed by the elder son124 under the supervision of
charji. charji made a ball or pinda of flour which was offered to the deceased while the
body was washed, shaved and covered with a white cloth called kapphan in local
language.125 Son wore white clothes called pungi and walked bare footed.126 After the
performance of certain ceremonies, the dead body was put on a wooden plank called
pead or kerah and took on shoulders, usually by the family members or men belonging to
the dead person’s clan to shamshan.127 Before coming out of home a diya was lightened
in the home which was covered with the earthen plate called theekar in local language. It
was a believe that the soul of dead person was wandered in the home for ten days and this
diya save him from the darkness.128 When they reached half way, water was sprinkled in
a circle round the bier and son or next of kin dashed an earthen ware vessel called baltoi
in local language on the ground and loudly bewailed the deceased. 129 On reaching the
burning place, a pile of wood called chali in local language was erected on which the
dead person was laid, generally facing north. The charji performed some rituals and after
uncovering of the dead man’s face, a mixture of ghee, honey and curd was dropped in the
mouth.130
After placing five pinds on the body, the funeral pyre was lightened by the person
wearing pungi while the body was being consumed, the relations sat around at some
distance and when it was partly burnt the eldest son or next of kin took one of the sticks
of which the bier was composed and broke the skull. This was supposed to facilitate the
187
escape of the soul from the body. When the cremation was over, all took bath before
returning to their homes. The burning should be on the day of the death, if possible and
always before sunset.
After the burning was over, the bones of the toes, fingers, jaws called Phull were
collected on the third day after the death. They were kept in a vessel and later on thrown
in to holy water of Ganga at Haridwar.131
The mourning period was observed for different days among different castes.
Brahmans mourned for eleven days, Rajputs for thirteen days, and Rathis for twenty one
days. During this period men shaved their heads and beards, women put off their
jewellery, music was prohibited, and uncooked food was taken. 132 They were not allowed
to use a krahyee in the household for thirteen days.133 A pot full of water was hang on
some door with a small hole in it and drops of water released from that pot which
indicated that the age of a person reduce every second like the drops of water. 134 The
person who wore pungi has to eat once in a day till the time of Karma and has to give
water to the pipal tree daily. The separate food with the name of dead person called Naiti
was kept and given to cow. During this period everybody slept on the floor. If any
marriage was held then the period of mourning end. 135
If the husband of a woman died. The mourning period was lasted in her parental
home for five days. On the tenth day women from her parental side went to their- in-laws
house to give her Randepa136 and in return the women from deceased side also went to
her parental home to exchange their mourning called as morami makan.137
Dasma
On tenth day all the relatives, community members went together to some river or
place where water was available for taking bath. Community meal was also prepared. If
an old person died his close relatives were given sugar and ghee to eat and ladies came
with them were given dupatta and sugar in return.
188
Karma or Terma
On this day, charji came and karma ritual was performed and an offering called
as chej which consisted of a cot, fruit, utensils, cloths, umbrella, flour, etc., were given to
him. After that all the family members and close relatives bathed. Then Pandit performed
the Jal Khalana and rasam pagadi rituals. Women from the side of their kudam gave
bindi, lipsticks, and bangles to the ladies who put off these things. They coated their floor
with the cow dung and also painted it with parola so that all types of soag or mourn
disappeared. They also gave cash money called pungi de paise to the person wearing
pungi.138
In the name of departed person a cot with bed sheet, mattress, grains, fruits,
vegetables, clothes, shoes, utensils, umbrellas, sweets, etc., put together and offered to the
charji who acted as a purohit. The gift was known as chaj. Garud Purana was read out
during the mourning period by the pandit at the time convenient to all. Narayan bali was
also performed in case of a person died of an unnatural death.
Masak, Adbarakhi and Barakhi
In order to satisfy the soul of dead person from the death till one year every month
charji was called and pinda dana was performed. Charji was given food to eat. Some
people gave food to the choice of dead person to Brahmans or other persons. On the six
month adbarkhi was performed and after one year barakhi was performed. On barakhi
also chej was offered by the name of dead person.
After four years chauwari was performed in which chej was offered and Rasam
pattadi was also done. Pattadies were given to brother- in-laws. They were given food to
eat called as Sat-pakwaniya. A community meal was also performed.139
Dussana
There was also a custom prevalent in Jammu region that if someone died in a
family on some festival day. That very festival was not celebrated again as it was
189
considered as dussana of that festival in that family. In the case of chib, once a girl was
died during Navratras days, they stopped celebrating the navratras. People of this family
did not keep saankh in their home and also did not kept fast.140 This dusana could be stop
if there was the birth of a male child in that family on that very day. Like the Sambyal of
village Bara, district Samba, they had the dussana of two festivals, navratra and bach
duah, there was the birth of the male child on the day of bach duah so they started
celebrating that festival again, but there is still the dussana of navratra festival in their
family.141
Customs relating to women
There were certain customs specific to women which also indicated their position
in the society. Important of them were sati, female infanticide, child marriages and
others. These social customs were followed by the people of region under study and
contributed to the hardships of women folk.
Sati
The custom of sati was practiced by the people of Jammu region since very early
days. This custom even find its mention in dogri folk literature, ballads, legends and
official records. Earliest mention of Sati comes from the famous Persian work
Rajadarshani of Ganesh Das Badhera. It mentioned about the self- immolation of the
wives and women attached to Raja khir Rae of Jammu in about A.D. 227.142 Fredric
Drew has cited few cases of Sati among Rajputs in Jammu region. He wrote, though not
practiced in case of everyone who became a widow, yet it was followed as a general rule
by more than one caste, and was, probably, the most strictly carried out by the Mians. It
applied to all the widows of the deceased.143 The practice seems to have been widely
prevalent in Jammu among all classes of Hindus. This practice finds its mention as early
as third century A.D. Another early reference to Sati in Jammu was that of Nella Rani,
wife of Raja Suraj Dev, which happened in about A.D. 850. 144 The driving forces for Sati
were of various nature. First was the conjugal fidelity towards the deceased husband.
190
Second, was that after being consumed by the God of fire i.e Agni Devta, the faithful wife
could become one with her deceased husband in the next world.
Thirdly, the honor given to a widow and her family after this step, was a strong
motive even for an unwilling case. Finally, it was the anticipation of hardships and social
dishonor attendant on a lifelong widow hood compelled widows to perform Sati.
However, in later ages, there were references to forceful Sati which led a number of
young widows to commit sati forcibly of merit to avoid misery and pain. 145 In later years,
rulers like Ranjit Dev took several measures to do away with this evil custom. 146
Female Infanticide
It is difficult to trace when and how this practice originated in this region. It was a
common belief in the region that a girl taught to read and write would become a widow.
Such prejudices perpetuated illiteracy and ignorance among the women of the region.147
Birth of female child was considered not only undesirable but a serious calamity among
certain castes. This was because of the fact that their marriages required a lot of
expenditure. This custom of killing the female daughter at an early stages was prevalent
among Rajput families,148 especially among Mians of hills149 but later on some Brahmins
and khatris too adopted it.150 The Manhas tribe of Rajputs practiced it the most, followed
by Salaria, Jamwal and charak Rajputs. Some other high class Hindus of Khatri, Bedi and
Brahmin families also followed this custom.151 Usually the infants were placed in earthen
vessels and water pots and burid in the ground in pachhwarha (backyard) which was
attached to the house of almost every Mian.152 Some of the people immersed their newly
born daughter in a jar of milk and suffocated her to death. 153
It is also mentioned in Rajdarshani that the killing of girls was prevalent in whole
of the Rajput tribe in the Duggar region.154 Fredric Drew also observed that there was an
impression of disgrace among the mians, to see their daughter led to someone else’s
house, but we could not be sure that this was a result of the long continued practice that a
cause for it.155 Till of late years, it was an almost universal custom among the mians to
destroy every female infant born to them.
191
Child marriage
In duggar society, if a girl was not married at a proper age, she was derided and
her parents were considered as pitiable and even sinful, 156 Infant marriages were
performed when girl was only two to four years of age. This custom was very common in
duggar region including both higher and lower strata of the society. 157
The root of this evil lies in the belief among Hindus that, it was the aim of all the
parents amongst Hindus to get their children married as early as possible and it was the
aim of all to beget children as soon as the parties to a marriage have reached the age of
puberty. Infant marriages were considered by the people of the society as a proper
discharge of the religious duty to get their children married and was regarded as a credit
on the family where this custom was preserved. 158 Reason for the existence of such a
custom in the society may be found in the general belief that, if married early, would not
indulge in false practices bringing a bad name to the family. And if such a thing
happened, it would become a problem for the parents to get her married.
Polygamy
The population of the region was predominantly monogamous, but the examp les
of polygamy were not absent either. Polygamy was adopted as a fashion among some
aristocratic and middle class society in the region. 159 Many instances in this regard have
been recorded in the history. For instance, Raja Vajradhara(1164 A.D) had two wives and
Raja Kapur Dev had a number of wives. Second marriage was allowed only if first wife
was barren or had a physical infirmity. The second marriage was usually done with the
consent on the first one, though it was not an essential pre-requisite.
Customs related with honor or prestige
Whenever a girl was given in marriage. Her parents, brother and all the relatives
who were elder in age then girl did not even drink water from her- in-laws house. After
bath, early in the morning, daughter–in- laws touched the feet of her- in- laws and took
blessings. Whenever, anybody came to her home, she has to touch his feet and also the
192
feet of her-mother- in-law. There was also the custom that before cooking food the
kitchen or chownka was coated with cow dung called chowka poorna and food was
cooked by wearing giddy. Women may eat only after her husband has fed. She did not
address her husband by his name. She always referred to her husband as the child’s father
or by some other Euphemistic term like Ji.160
Daughter-in- law observed purdah when the father-in- law was present and it was
generally observed that when he came into the house, he would either cough aloud, so
that they may cover their faces and tone down their voices. As a general rule, there was
no direct conversation between the father –in- law and daughter- in- law, if a situation and
an occasion necessitate it, it was brief to the extent of being monosyllabic, and the
daughter- in- law was barely audible. Purdah was also observed before the husband’s elder
brother.161
Dana
People of Jammu region gave importance to fasts /vratas and offering called
Mokha. Karwa chauth, bach-duah, drupadi, bhugga, channan- chhat were the fasts
observed by the women. Puneya Ekadesi, janmashtami, shivratri were some fasts
observed by both men and women. After keeping the vratas for a particular period, the
people of Jammu region went for their mokha. This custom was continued since a long
time. The offering made during Mokha of chanan chhat was given to sister- in- law and
that of karewa chauth to mother- in- law. There was a believe that after giving mokha of
vrata the person go to parloak.162 There was also a custom among the people of Jammu
region to give cooked food in the form of chapaties, rice, and a dish to brahmana daily.
This food was called as gaisan. The gaisan, which was given from basakhi to the
sankrant of haad month, was known as dhayada.163 In spite of this the kul purohitayani
also came twice in a month to take uncooked food called neem. Whenever a new grain
was taken in the home there was also the custom of giving a portion of it to the Brahman
called as Nikaran Mansana.164
193
Customs related with birds and animals
Many customs related with animal and birds were observed by the people of
Jammu region. The most important place was given to cow which was treated as a semi-
divine animal. Her divine counterpart was called Kama-dhenu. She was never to be killed
or ill treated. To let a cow died with a rope round her neck was considered a heinous sin
to be expiated only by feeding the brahmana or a pilgrimage to the Ganga. A cow when
ill was, therefore, at once let loose.165 Even Rajdarshani mentioned about.166Before
cooking food in the morning first two chappattis were given to cow known as gou-grass.
There was also the custom of offering grass to cow on the day of sankrant. The offering
of cow was also done by the dying person. Naiti was given to cow. Cow’s urine was also
considered as very pious. There was also the custom of giving Pedda to cow on the day
of gopal Ashtami and garland of flowers was put in her neck.167
Cow worship assumed another form in connection with the theory of
transmigration. It has become the part of the theory that soul migrates into the cow
immediately preceding its assumption of the human form, and she escorts the soul across
the dreaded river Vaitarni, which bounds the lower world.168
The hill legend tells how Siva once manifested himself in his fiery form, and
Vishnu and Brahma went in various directions to see how far the light extended. On their
return Vishnu declared that he had been unable to find out how far the light prevailed, but
Brahma said that he had gone beyond its limits. Vishnu then called on Kamadhnu, the
celestial cow, to bear testimony, and she corroborated Brahma with her tongue, but she
shook her tail by way of denying the statement, so Vishnu cursed her that her mouth
should be impure, but that her tail should be held holy for ever. 169 Goat was another
animal to which mystic power were attributed. Probably the chief reason was because it
has a curious habit of occasionally shivering, which was regarded as caused by some
indwelling spirit.170 In Jammu region goat was sacrificed in the rituals associated with
kul-devta. Bal was given to dog during shradhas and daily rituals.
194
During shradha, crows, cow and dogs were given bal.171 Snakes were worshipped
all over Jammu hills as Naga-deota.172 In the Nagpanchami there was also the custom of
putting dallassi into the barmi. A pregnant woman did not give her shadow to the snake.
There was a believe that if this happened the snakes became blind. 173
People of Jammu region also consider monkies as the sacred army of god
Hanumaan and offer gram and other eatables to them to take blessings of god hanuman
and lord Rama for alleviating their miseries.174
Cat was considered a Brahmani and it was a sin to kill a cat and the killer was
likely to be punished by becoming a cat in his next births. To avoid this fate in his next
births a cat made of gold had to be given to a Brahman. 175 Ants were fed all over Duggar
with panjiri or gullar made of five articles or simply with raw rice or flour. It was done to
assure good luck.176 Even insects in some cases regarded with veneration. It is deemed
most unlucky to destroy a colony of ants. The ant hills, is , as we have seen, used as an
alter by some . Hence ants are carefully fed on certain days by Hindus. 177 Among birds
garuda held the foremost place of reverence, being a vehicle of Visnu, and its sight on the
dussehra was eagerly sought after by devote Hindus. Similarly peacock being vehicle of
saraswati, the goddess of learning, was held sacred.178
During the month of Basakh, there was the custom of keeping a bowl full of water
for drinking of sparrow called as chadolle. Fresh water was put daily in the bowl and rice
was also kept near the bowl. During the month of chaitra, there was the custom of giving
bajra to sparrows.179 Fish are in many places regarded as sacred. It was a common
custom among pious Hindus to feed fish at sacred places with a lakh or more of little
balls of flour.180 As it was in case of Jamwal clan of Raya suchani of district samba, they
worshipped fish as they had Baba Pehr as their Kul-devta which is in form of fish.181
Customs related with superstition
The age old back wardness and orthodoxy had given birth to some good and bad
omens and superstitions. The people of Jammu were so superstitious that when they met
195
some people belonging to the names of certain towns and village out of antipathy towards
their inhabitants. For instance Jammu was called- warh Shahr, Samba-citan-Walha
Shahr, Akhnoor- Daryawalla Shahr, jasrota- watta walla shahr, Bansal- Kacha Pind,
Prole, Nagri and Jaganu Qila Wala Pind.182
The people of Jammu region were also stanch believer of Shagoons. If they went
somewhere and a cat crossed their path it was taken to be a bad omen. A crow on the roof
was a warning of the arrival of a guest. They believed that a journey to hills on Tuesday
and Wednesday was not free from hazards and troubles. Some peop le have gone to the
extent of saying that
“Mangal Budh Jo Jaiyee Pahaar, Jiti Baazi Aaiya Har”
If an owl barked before a ceremony it was postponed taking it as ominous. If one
sneezed it was also taken as bad sign.183 The parents of expected child were advised not
to do any work and maintained complete calm during the solar or lunar eclipses. They
were even not allowed to sit at one place for a longer period and advised to do worship
otherwise their action during this period may reflect in the form of deformity in the body
parts of the baby who was in the womb.
Arms were given to beggars and Brahmans on this day to avert the evil effects of
planets. As the period of her pregnancy advanced, she was not allowed to go out of home
during odd hours. She was asked to remain indoors during lightening, thunder, and
eclipses.184
People stopped eating and drinking during the eclipses period and a knot of kusha
or Drubha grass was kept in all edibles like food, milk, and curd, etc., so that these were
saved from becoming impure. It was a common believe that Drubha grass knots save all
these eatables from the bad effect of Grahan.
Everybody has been asked to remain in a meditative Mood and attended to the
daily routine work only after a bath on the expiry of the eclipse.185
196
The people of Jammu region followed many customs when coated the floor with
cow dung. This coating was done in two ways. In normal routine it was always moving
with the hand in half circles so that the hollow of the circle remained towards the door. In
conditions of mourning and sad happenings the movement of the hand was just in reverse
direction. Therefore, the outsider knew the situation of the house looking at the surface of
the floor only then he entered the house. In some parts of Jammu it was known as
Chowka Poorna while in other parts it was called as Lipna. The term lipna was widely
used in duggar ranges for coating a wall or floor with any semi-sold thing, for instance,
Cow-dung, moist mud, etc.186
In areas like Kishtwar, the crowing of a cock in the evening, sight of a priest in
the morning and the cowing of crows at night were considered unlucky. They still believe
in the omens, talismans, charms, amulets and dreams. Walking on burnt coat or fire is
still practiced at the shrine of Ashta Dash Bozi Devi at Sarthal, on every annual fair. Till
late period, the villagers would perform the ceremony of Bhum- Jehwai.
According to this ceremony, cooked food placed in plates was taken to the
agricultural fields to be eaten by children. This ceremony was considered very suspicious.
Another ceremony was to fix, a bunch of leaves of fruit trees on a stick with a couple of
flowers especially narcissus and a bunch of wool. This miraculous stick was fixed in the
earth of every agricultural field with the intention of obtaining a bumper harvest.187
The Hindus have many superstitions connected with menstruation in women.
Women were considered ceremonially impure during this period. Even a Brahman
woman, we are told, degenerated into a chandali, The lowest of the low, once her period
started. It was only proper that such a woman should be excluded from decent society
during her uncleanness. Hence she was not allowed to enter the house, cooked meals or
touch a clean person.188
A menstruating woman did not touch anything belonging to her husband. It was a
belief that a menstruating woman handled anything of her husband, he will surely fall
ill.189 The Puranas also attach great importance to the menstrual flow of women. The
197
Agni Purana says that if a menstruating woman touched anything she has to perform a
number of penances. The Siva Purana says that mantras should not be recited before her.
According to the Kurma Purana one should not talk with her nor eat anything offered by
her. To make sexual intercourse with her was regarded as one of the greatest sins in the
Vamana Purana.190
There were some other superstitions related with the women folk. It was believed
that if a woman bath in the open or in a nude way, water deity known in local language as
Jal pir was get attracted by the woman and he always remained with her. Whenever she
sleep, that Jal pir intercourse with that lady, as a result of this, many blue spots were
found on the body of that woman especially around thighs. That woman remained under
the influence of Jal pir. He did not lead her toward progress and always created conflicts
in her married life. It was said that if an unmarried girl has the influence of Jal Pir, she
should get herself free from his influence otherwise he also got married with that girl and
did not let her free till death. Her married life also did not succeed. 191
Food Habits
The food habits of the people of Jammu region dependent on the climatic
conditions of the region. The whole region was divided into two parts Antargiri and
Bahargiri. Antargiri is a hilly area whereas Bahargiri is a plain. Food habits of the
people of hilly areas comprised mainly of wheat, maize, patato, pulses, saag, milk, curd,
butter, and honey whereas the food of plain areas consisted of wheat, rice, bajra, gur,
milk, curd, gram, peas, pulses, and green vegetables. 192 In spite of this, people in their day
to day life as well as on special occasion used to prepared different types of pakwans and
other sweet and saline dishes.
In the summer season, there was a lot of mangoes in kandi and hilly areas of the
region. Many edibles were prepared from these raw mangoes and were taken by the
people of this region with great rejoice like chhacha of raw mangoes (makdia) ambal
(mani) of mangoes.193 Chhacha was prepared by cutting mangoes in small pieces. They
were mixed together with mint, salt, chilli, onion, in a mixy called as kunda -danda in
198
local language and grinded. Then curd and sugar were also added according to the taste.
Mani was prepared by boiling mangoes in the water and after squeezing them completely
salt and sugar were mix in it.194 A sour product called maad in local language was also
prepared from the raw mangoes and was kept for the whole year to use in preparing
ambal and other sour dishes. Amb- Papad was also prepared.195
During the special occasion such as community meal (dhaam) maash dal, channe
daal, rajmash, ambal, auria, were prepared. Plain and sweet rice called Mitha bhat in
local language was very famous.196 In the Basholi area rong and karri were also serve in
dhaam.197
Dhaam was served on large leaf Planks of lotus leaves or made from leaves by
stitching together called pattals and stitched cups of leaves called as doonas. Sripalau
and meatpalau were the two important varieties of rice prepared by the people of Jammu
Region. The dinning place was usually on the ground which was cleaned and plastered
with cow dung and was separated by drawing a border. 198
Many types of sweet delicious dishes and pakwans were prepared by the people
of Jammu region in their day to day life as well as at other special occasion. Pakwans of
ghiur, suchiya, khamire, puriya, babria, sweet-namkeen chille, siyan, charoliya,
theekarmande, rutt, pude,dropada, etc., were prepared on the festival. Khamire were
prepared by wheat flour kneaded and leavened with yeast (khamir) and then baked on
tawa. Thothrus were globular in shape and smaller in size, rest preparation was same.
Ghiur was made of loosely kneaded leavened wheat flour (maida) so that it was a slurry
and flow then sprinkled with hand in very hot ghee in a shallow bottomed pan, so that it
assumed a jelly like form of bread. It was taken with sugar and curd. It was a special dish
offered to bride and groom in their respective homes after saant and also offered to
groom by sisters of bride on the wedding day. Charolia were made from thin paste of
fine wheat flour put in earthen vessel with four tubular holes. The paste was allowed to
flow on a big tawa called loh in a manner that four parallel lines were formed on the tawa
and similar cross lines were also formed while allowing the fluid to flow at right angles to
199
the first, with the result that the resultant product has squares all round and was baked on
low flame and was taken with milk. Chille was prepared from gram flour. It was made
spicy by adding salt, dhania and chilli. Pude was prepared in ghee by mixing suji, maida,
sounf and sugar. Vratas like during Bachdua and Drupadi, rutt and dropada were
prepared. On the day of Lohri, tricholi, popcorns and khichadi were prepared. Rice was
not prepared on the day of Ekasdeshi. There was the custom of putting kadai(fry Pan) on
the chulla(fire) on the day of Sankrant.
During the time of Marriage, there was the custom of distributing bhaji in the
form of laddu, sakarbare, mathia, semiya, sweet namkeen babru, kalhe, ghiur, and
sasurut in the whole community.199
A special type of dish called as Madra was also known for a long time200 and
made by people in every occasion of happiness. It was made in two types salty and sweet
madras. The urad(mash) or rajmash or roungi were fried in ghee. Well churned curd
softened and mellowed. Salt, chilli pods, cloves of garlic, powered turmeric, coriander
powered were added, and it was further cooked on low flame. It was eaten with rice.
Sweet Madra was prepared by adding turmeric in milk and it was allowed to simmer, dry
fruits especially chhoare and songi were added and further cooked Sugar was added.
Rice, daal (channa), rajmaah, ambal was prepared in the days of sraddha. It was
said that without the ambal of kandoli and bindi no sraddha was complete. Kheer of milk
and rice, and curd of bhalle was the important thing during shradha.201
Dress and Ornaments as a part of custom
From the time immemorial, the people have adorned themselves with precious
and semi-precious ornaments. The people of Jammu region also showed the continuity of
customs of wearing ornaments. Ornaments could be regarded as a mark of man’s
attachment to the material world. It also revealed the zenith of a society in the field of
culture and the social and economic status of the people wearing these ornaments. People
200
of Jammu region adorned these ornaments as per certain religious beliefs and customs of
wearing ornaments.
It was the custom and religious belief to pierce ears and nose of all men and
women. In due course of time it became all the more compulsory for women to pierce
nose because it was required to support nath,(nose-pendent) as a mark of suhag , I’e
wifehood. It was an established custom of the society to wear nath on marriage. Thus,
piercing of nose became an inescapable rite for the women. These nose ornaments were
known as burlak, nath, balu, koka, besar, shingarpuri-nath, laung or keel, tili, khoala-
balu, etc., in local language.202 (Nath was given to her by her Mama (maternal uncle) at
the time navgrahan shanty poojan.203 Another adornment called Kalire, made of dried
fruits, flowers, cowries, leaf-thin silver kalash, etc.204 The other important items of the
wedding ornaments were chakk which used to send by her in- laws. Besides these
ornaments chura, made of a synthetic material or red glass bangles were also worn by the
bride. The chakk and chura were used to wear for one year after marriage. The nath or
bali or its much miniaturized version, tili continuoued be a part of her body as a symbol
of suhag even on pyre.205
Even the importance of these ornaments could be understood from the blessing
which an elder person gave to a newly married women by saying, ‘Teri nath te churi
barqhar rehan I’e may your nose–stud and bangles remained protected.206 Even bichhuas
was worn on the toe as a sign of suhag while getting married.207
The women of the Jammu region had to adorn their forehead with various kinds
of jewellary ornaments as a mark of suhag. These were known as tikka, bindi, mangtika
or mangpatti, ard-chandraman, bindiyana-tikka, dooni-tikka, kutbi, sosani, jhoomar,
chand- bindi, shingar-patti, chiri, samosa, etc., in local language.208
Along with this ear ornaments wore by the women of Jammu region were karan-
phul-jhumka, phumki, murki, khalil, kundalas,jhumkas, bunde, balis, tops, ring, tili,
machchli, sakolries, dandiyan,mor-phankhi,bala-khungridar, kante.209 The neck-
ornaments also occupied a very prominent place in the life of women of Jammu. They
201
used to adorn the upper part of their body with various types of ornaments known as
chandan-har, orali, guluband, mohan-mala, sat-laraya, panchlariya, peendal,
champakali-har, jugnu, chand, kanthi, nama, sangali, moharn, nava ratna, rani-har,
etc.210
Chura or bang was also considered as the sign of married woman. It was said that
this ornament was also worn by a suhagan on religious ceremonial hours as a compulsory
wirst ornament. Besides this, others were kangan, hath phul or panch-oangole, bain ,
churi, dastband, maridiyan, pariband, ilichi-dana, garichuri, churi-bangles, glass-
bangles-churian, etc.211 The people of Jammu region also adorned themselves with many
finger ornaments like anguthi, aarsi, chhalla, rattan-chowk, anguthi-mundri, chhalliyan,
punchangale, nuthi-chhapan in local language.212
According to the science of astrology various jewels and stones have played a
very important role in the development of various aspects of a human life. These stones
and jewels helped a man in achieving success in life keeping in view the effect of nine
planets on individual concerned.213 The people of Jammu region also believed in the good
and bad effects of these planets. Besides this many totemic ornaments like silver bangles,
anklets and amulets were also tied to the body of child to protect him from evil eyes214
Taweezes were also continuoued to be worn as protection against the evil influence of
planets.215 They were worn on such parts of the body, where they remained invisible. 216
Folk-Dances as a part of customs
Hirna
Hirna form of dance performed during lohri that too in the houses of the people
who were blessed with the birth of new baby or where in new wedding had taken place.
In this dance, dancers put on a mask of dear on their face and dance in a circle rendering
certain folk rhymes. Drums and cymbals were the main musical instrument used during
performance. There was no age bar for the performance of this dance. 217
202
Jagarna
It was more or less a mock drama in which ladies gave the performance. After the
departure of barat from Bridegroom’s house, all the ladies from community assembled in
the house of groom and dance at the tune of dholki, a small household drum. They
enacted the roles of various male members of the family and close relatives of the groom
and cheered at them with a peel of laughter. The drama went on for whole night so it
known as jagrana that they have to keep themselves awake throughout the night. Jagarna
was in vogue throughout the region of Jammu.218
Keekali
Keekali was a very simple but interesting folk dance performed only by the
women -folk especially of young girls. No musical instrument or a particular place was
needed for this dance. Before starting this dance girls were divided in many groups, each
group comprising two girls, each girl facing her fellow girl hold her hands with a strong
grip. Then girls bend their heads backward for balance.219 They started revolving first
gradually and started gaining speed with the rise of tempo of dance till they look like a
whirlwind. In spite of high speed they continued singing like-
Keekali kaleel di, Paga mere vir di,
Dupatta mere bhai da, phete munh javai da.220
Tamachara
This dance was also performed by the women –folk on the occasion of marriage
of boy especially after the departure of barat from groom’s house. Women assembled at
the house of groom and dance vehemently. They provided rhythm by a dholak and
clapping of gathering. A pair of girls would come in the centre and performed keekali or
action of some other style while singing sarcastic verses which created laughter of the
whole assembly and fury of the dance till the climax of a round was reached. Then the
second pair came out and like this it went on.221
203
Bhangra
Some areas of Jammu Region like Kathua, Hiranagar, R.S.Pura and even some
villages around Jammu were much influenced with the Punjabi culture. Therefore,
Bhangra was also performed in this region. It was performed on Baisakhi, the first
Baisakh that is on thirteenth april every year when the young boys attired in a beautiful
traditional dress came out in procession dancing on the beat of drum and making
hilarious gestures with ejaculation of sudden rhythmic notes, popularly known as Bolian.
Bhangra was the folk dance of Punjab but in Jammu Province, Ranbir Canal, Jammu,
Airwan, Bamyal, Kandi areas near to the Border were the center of Bhangra. At Airwan,
near Kathua, there used to be competition among the parties coming from different
localities. Bhangra, infact was a dance attributed to the harvesting season. Farmers
became so happy to see their production of corn that they came out of their dwellings to
enjoy and share their happiness with their kith and kins. They sang and dance in mirth
that who witnessed their performance couldn’t help but more with the rhythm such was
the beauty of the dance.222
Gidda
Just like that of Bhangra, Gidda was also a dance of swift movement of steps. It
was performed by the ladies only. They assembled at the decided site, a courtyard or a
large chamber, in their traditional dress, salwar, kameez and decorated duppata with
silver thread. Sometimes ghagra or shrara was there in place of salwar.
They arranged themselves in a circle and over the best of clapping and dholki, all
of them moved and sang a rhyme, popularly known as Boulian. After a round two
performers, one each from opposite direction, came forward and dance with their
movement the rhythm went on adding momentum and finally broke into normal sequence
and the main stanza was repeated followed by the performance of two other dancers but
in a different mode thus the sequence went on till all of them have not given their
performance. Gidda was performed during auspicious ceremonies of wedding at the time
204
of new born baby. However, it was not limited to these occasions only, at any time, at
any happy occasion gidda could be performed on any occasion.223
205
References.
1 Dash, K.N, Invitation to social and cultural anthropology, 2004, p.37
2 Kar, B. Parimal, Society A Study of Social Interaction,1994, p.80.
3 Davis, Kingsley, Human Society, 2000, p.7
4 Ibid.
5 Kar, B. Parimal, Op. cit., p.80-81.
6 Charak, S.D.S., History and Culture of Himalayan States Vol. VII, 1997, P.76.
7 Ibid.
8 Interview conducted with Manohar Singh of village Katli (Samba), 15-12-2013.
9 Jerath, Ashok, Duggar ka Sanskritic Itihaas (in Hindi), 1997, p.105.
10 Shastri, Bal Krishan., Dogri Lok Sahitya, ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da Sanskritic
Itihaas, 1985, p.409.
11 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, A socio-Religious Study of Visnudharmottra Purana, 1994,
p.45.
12 Goswami, Om, Dogri lok Varta (in Dogri), 1994, p.79.
13 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.409.
14 Ibid., p.409.
15 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.81.
16 Ibid., p.82.
17 Ibid., p.83.
18 Gandalgaal, Surinder pal. Duggar da lok Sangeet,(in Dogri), ed. Om Goswami,
Duggar da Sanskritic Itihaas, 1985, p.171.
19 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.410.
206
20 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.89.
21 Ibid., p.90.
22 Ibid.
23 Interview conducted with Vishno Devi of village prithipur (Jammu), 20-1-2014.
24 Shastri, B.K, Op. cit., p.410.
25 Ibid., p.410.
26 Ibid., p.410.
27 Ibid., p.411.
28 Jerath, Ashok, Op. cit., p.109.
29 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.412.
30 Ibid., p.413.
31 Srivastva, Sahab lal, Folk Culture and oral tradition, 1974, p.11
32 Interview conducted with Kasturi Lal of village Sikanderpur,(Jammu),21-1-2014.
33 Charak, S.D.S, History and Culture of Himalayan States. Vol.IX, 2002,p.43
34 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.425
35 Charak,S.D.S, History and Culture of Himalayan States, vol. VII, 1997, p.424-425.
36 Charak ,S.D.S,vol.IX, Op. cit., p.423
37 Charak, S.D.S,vol, VII, Op. cit., p.115
38 Shastri, B.K., Op. cit., p.416.
39 Ibid., p.417.
40 Interview conducted with Vishno Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu),20-1-2014.
41 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.118.
42 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Focus on Jammu and Kashmir, 2005, p.743.
207
43 Sharma Champa, Duggar de Reeti-Rewaj (in Dogri), ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da
Sanskritic Itihaas (in Dogri), 1985, p.357.
44 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.743-744.
45 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.357.
46 Pandey, R.B. Hindu Samskaras, 1969, p.71.
47 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.743.
48 Charak,S.D.S, vol VII, Op. cit.,p.117.
49 Interview conducted with Kanchan Sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.
50 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p.36.
51 Ibid.
52 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.117.
53 Interview Vijay Kumari of village Nougran (Bishnah),20-1-2014.
54 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.358.
55 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.744.
56 Interview conducted with Kanchan sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.
57 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p.36.
58 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.118.
59 Thomas, P. Hindu Religion, Customs and Manners, 1975, p.79.
60 Interview conducted with Pushpa devi of prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.
61 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.119.
62 Interview with Santosh Devi of village Malaal (Akhnur), 7-1-2014.
63 Interview with Shashi Bhau of village Lamah, (Palahwala), 8-1-2014
64 Charak,S.D.S,vol,VII, Op. cit.,p.120.
208
65 Interview conducted with Kanchal Sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.
66 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p. 37.
67 Kanchan Sambyal Op. cit.
68 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.122.
69 Gupta, Kusam Kumari, Op. cit., p.43.
70 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.366.
71 Interview conducted with pandit Ashish pande of Kotli Charaka (Bishnah),20-1-2014.
72 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.133.
73 Interview with pandit Ashish pande Op. cit.
74 Ibid.
75 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.85.
76 Interview conducted with Pandit Deep Raj of village Nougran (Bishnah),20-1-2014.
77 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.361.
78 Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.
79 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.88.
80 Interview conducted with Puro devi of village Katli (Samba), 15-12-2013.
81 Jerath, Ashok, Folk Art of Duggar, vol. I, 1992, p.46.
82 Interview with Puro devi, Op. cit.
83 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.361.
84 Ibid.
85 Interview with Pandit Sushil Sharma of R.S.Pura, 5-1-2014.
86 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.361.
87 Sharma,Shyam lal , Dogra Khan-Laan, (in Dogri), ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da
209
Sanskritic Itihaas(in Dogri),1985, p.284.
88 Interview conducted with Deep Raj Shrma of Nougran (Bishnah) 20-1-2014.
89 Goswami, Om, Op. cit., p.89.
90 Ibid., p.90.
91 Charak, S.D.S, vol, VII, Op. cit., p.134.
92 Interview conducted with Rano Devi of village Padyari. (Airwan), 7-1-2014.
93 Jerath, Ashok, vol. II, Op cit., p.108.
94 Interview conducted with Kajal Kiran of village Janglot (Kathua), 7-1-2014.
95 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., P.135
96 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.362
97 Interview conducted with Deep Raj Sharma Op. cit.
98 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit.,p.362.
99 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.135.
100 Jerath, Ashok, vol, I, Op. cit., p.47
101 Charak, S.D.S.vol, VII, Op. cit., p.135
102 Charak, S.D.S.vol, VII, Op. cit., p.135
103 Ibid., p.218-219
104 Ibid.
105 Charak, S.D.S, vol. VII, Op. cit., p.135
106 Interview conducted with Pt. Vimal Muni of Samba, 15-12-2013.
107 Interview conducted with Daya Banti of village prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.
108 Om Goswami, Op. cit., p.94.
109 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.363, Om Goswami, Op. cit., p.94-95.
210
110 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.364
111 Ibid., p.365
112 Ibid.
113 Jerath, Ashok,vol .I, Op. cit.,p.50.
114 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.136-137
115 Interview conducted with Vishno Devi, Op. cit.
116 Ibid.
117 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.746.
118 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.144.
119 Mohan, Brij, Sarha Sahitya, 2008-10,p.330.
120 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.746.
121 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.145.
122 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.746.
123 Mohan Brij, Op. cit., p330.
124 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.367.
125 Charak, S.D.S, vol, VII, Op. cit., p.145.
126 Sharma,Champa, Op. cit., p.367.
127 Ibid.
128 Mohan,Brij, Op. cit., p.330.
129 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op. cit., p.145, Sharma, Charma, Op. cit., p.367.
130 Interview conducted with Manohar Singh of Village Katli (Samba) 15-12-2013.
131 Charak, S.D.S.vol.VII, Op. cit., p.145-146.
132 Ibid., p.146.
211
133 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit.,p.748.
134 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.367.
135 Ibid., p.368.
136 Ibid., p.369.
137 Aseer Kishtwari, Wali Mohd, Op. cit., p.747.
138 Interview conducted with Nisha Sambyal of Gurha slathia (Vijaypur), 20-10-2013.
139 Om Goswami, Op. cit., p.104.
140 Interview with Meenu Cbib of Mishri Wala (Jammu),16-12-2013.
141 Kanchan Sambyal village Bara (Vijaypur), 8-12-2013.
142 Badhera, Ganesh Das, Rajdarshani, eng. translation by Charak, S.D.S.,and Billawaria,
Anita,1991, p.65.
143 Drew, Fredric, Jummoo and Kashmir Territories, new Delhi, 1875, p.51.
144 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op cit., p.152.
145 Vaidya, C.V., History of Medieval Hindu India, 1979, p.97.
146 Charak, S.D.S., vol.VII, Op cit., p.153.
147 Jain, P.C., Hindu Society of North Western Province (1801-1856), 1986, p.138.
148 Ibid.
149 Charak, S.D.S., vol.VII, P.157.
150 Khajuria, Sanjit Kumar, Social Evils among Hindus in Jammu Region, M.Phill
Dessertation,(unpublished) submitted to the university of Jammu.
151 Charak, S.D.S., vol.VII, Op cit., P.157.
152 Ibid., p.158.
153 Kapoor, M.L.,Op cit., p.146-147.
212
154 Badhera, Ganesh Das, Op. cit., p.171.
155 Drew, Fredric, Op. cit.,p.155.
156 Charak, S.D.S.,vol.VII,p.163.
157 Ibid., p.167.
158 Jasrotia, Deepti, “Some Aspects of Social History of Ancient Jammu’’ M.phill
Dessertation, (unpublished) submitted to the University of Jammu,2011.
159 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., P.168.
160 Thomass, P, Op. cit., p.82, Dr. Champa Sharma, Op. cit., p.375-376.
161 Kanchan Sambyal, Op cit.
162 Sharma, Champa, Op. cit., p.371-372.
163 Ibid., p.373.
164 Interview. Conducted with Sudesh Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu), 19-1-2014.
165 Charak, S.D.S., Vol .VII,Op cit., p.255.
166 Badhera, Ganesh Das, Op. cit.,p.168.
167 Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi Op. cit.
168 Crooke, W. Op. cit., p. 230.
169 Ibid., p.233.
170 Ibid., p.223.
171 Sudesh Devi Op. cit.
172 Charak, S.D.S, vol.VII, Op cit., p.256.
173 Ibid., p.374-375.
174 Singh, Surjit, The great people of Jammu and Kashmir, 2009, p.12.
175 Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.255.
213
176 Ibid., p.256.
177 Crook, W. Op. cit., P.256.
178 Ibid.
179 Interview conducted with Kanchan Sambyal of village Bara (Vijaypur),8-12-2013.
180 Crooke, W. Op. cit., P.255.
181 Interview with Shivani Jamwal Of Raya Suchani,(Samba), 30-12-2013.
182 Pathik, Joteshwar, Cultural Heritage of Dogra, Op cit, 1980, p.136.
183 Jerath Ashok, Dogra legends of art and culture, 1998, p.17.
184 Pandit, S.N, Kashmir Hindu Samskaras, 2006, p.32.
185 Ibid.
186 Jerath, Ashok, vol I, Op. cit., p.48.
187 Hassnian, F.M, History of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh and Kishtwar,1998, p.156.
188 Thomas, P., Op. cit., p.81.
189 Bhattacharya, N.N. Op. cit., P.162.
190 Ibid.
191 Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi, Op cit.
192 Shastri, B.K., Devika Tat ki Sanskriti, Op cit., p.32.
193 Ibid.
194 Ibid.
195 Interview conducted with Raj Devi of Gagwal, 27-12-2013.
196 Sharma, Champa, Op cit., p.365.
197 Interview conducted with Ishro Devi of Basholi, 15-11-2013.
198 Pathik, Jyoteshwar, Op. cit., p.129.
214
199 Sharma, Shyam lal, Op. cit., p.277.
200 Pathik, Jyoteshwar, Op. cit., p.129.
201 Interview conducted with Puro Devi, Op cit.
202 Kumar, Raj, Paintings and Lifestyles of Jammu Region, 2006, p.280.
203 Sharma, Neeru, Hamara Sahitya (Duggar Jivan: shelli wa shilp), (in Hindi), 2008- 09,
p.241.
204 Kumar, Raj, Op cit., p.258.
205 Ibid.
206 Ibid., p.258.
207 Ibid., p.255.
208 Ibid., p.260.
209 Ibid., p.269.
210 Ibid., p.283.
211 Ibid., p.293.
212 Ibid., p.298.
213 Ibid., p.297.
214 Ibid., p.306.
215 Ibid., p.256.
216 Ibid., p.256.
217 Jerath, Ashok,vol II, Op. cit., p.108-109.
218 Ibid., p.110.
219 Singh, Surjit, Op. cit., p.108-109.
220 Charak, S.D.S, vol. IX, Op. cit., p.154.
215
221 Ibid.
222 Jerath, Ashok,vol,II. Op. cit., P.110-111.
223 Ibid., p.111-112.