CHAPTER 4

Literature Review- II

Curriculum Design

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Chapter Four

This chapter will review the literature on curriculum design and touch upon two models of

curriculum design which are of special relevance to this study.

Curriculum design has been defined as the planning, design, implementation and evaluation of a

programme of students' learning by the educational institution of which those students are

members. The word ‘curriculum’ has Latin origins which gives it the connotation of running on a

prescribed path or, in other words, going through a process to achieve a desired objective.

4.1 Models in curriculum design

Many discussions on curriculum design have been generated as a result of a general

dissatisfaction with some of the accepted models at University and college levels.

Crowder (1997) discusses two broad frameworks in curriculum development namely “classical”

and “participatory.” The classical/rational framework follows an objectivist or product oriented

paradigm where the curriculum is set by experts and the acceptance of the syllabus by all others

involved (teachers, students, employees etc) is taken for granted. In contrast to this is the

participatory/interactive approach which follows a "subjectivist", process-oriented paradigm.

This allows all those involved in the teaching-learning process to participate in syllabus

formation. “The goal is to stimulate different actors to participate in a dynamic, interactive

process that allows their perceptions of the "ideal curriculum" to be made explicit and then made

compatible and/or modified as necessary to produce the curriculum.” Crowder talks of two

diametrically opposite trends which have had an influence on the curriculum development

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process. The first is globalization which has compelled students, researchers and teachers to

communicate and work in an international context. This has been amply supported by the

linkages that are possible among institutions through information systems. In direct contrast to

this is the trend towards localization, or decentralization of education and curricula. “This is the

result of wider acceptance of the participatory/interactive approach to curriculum development,

and of recognition that institutions, staff and communities which feel they have an active role in

the curriculum development process are more committed to achieving its success.”

On the same lines El Okda (2005) speaks about the ‘top-down approach’ adopted by educational

institutions which is conceptualized as “a set of hierarchically ordered processes that are

centrally initiated and controlled.” This has an important disadvantage—that of suppressing any

feedback or criticism on the model. However it is a favorite with institutions that have a great

geographical spread to ensure that syllabus changes can be quickly implemented across a number

of parallel courses. In contrast to this is the ‘bottoms up’ approach where the teachers of a few

schools in a particular region formulate some common topics for a syllabus. Overall the most

popular curriculum models are those that are designed collaboratively and centrally controlled

and which are regularly updated.

Allen et al (1998) discusses a number of problem-based curriculum designs in the formulation of

business communication courses which “provide many educators with pedagogical insights to

develop course assignments emphasizing critical thinking skills.” In this model, the course

concepts are linked to a few major, realistic business communication tasks. Communication is

taught through the process of carrying out the tasks and is akin to the problem based curriculum

formation.

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4.2 English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

The development of fields like commerce, science and technology and the consequent

establishment of English as an international language in these fields led to a definite need for

English language learning among students of various disciplines in institutions of higher

education. However they had specialized needs as far as English language learning was

concerned and this marked the emergence of ESP courses.

The curriculum models for General Purposes English courses were found to be inadequate for

ESP as the objectives had to be framed on the basis of the specialized needs of the learner. It was

in this context that the ESP model of curriculum design emerged.

The study of languages for specific purposes has a long history that dates back to perhaps even

the Roman and Greek empires—Evans et al (1998). Since 1960 it has become a vital activity

within Teaching of English as a Foreign Language/ Teaching of English as a Second Language

(TEFL /TESL) studies. Falvey (1979) traces the specialization of content in curricula of ELT to

the 1960s. Robinson (1980) points out to the first conference on Language for Special Purposes

convened in1969 as the starting point. In the late ‘60s and early 70s ESP received a further boost

as English language communication became the essential ingredient in the global expansion of

technology and business.

4.2.1 Definition of ESP

ESP has been defined as an approach to course design which is based on learner’s needs.

Munby(1978) has described ESP courses as “those where the syllabus and material are

determined in all essentials by the prior analysis of the communication needs of the learner.”

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Widdowson (1983) defines it as an activity which provides English for people who need the

language to fulfill occupational and academic goals.

Hutchinson et al (1987) define it as an approach that does not involve any predetermined

methodology but is constructed around the learner’s needs, the context and the language

required. The assumption on which ESP courses were based was that if the needs for which the

target language is required can be identified, then the identification of these needs can be used to

determine the contents of the course.

Strevens (in Evans 1998) lists four absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics of

ESP.

The absolute characteristics are as follows:

1. Designed to meet specific needs of learners

2. Related in content to disciplines , occupations and activities

3. Centred on language appropriate to that activity in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics

and so on, and analysis of the discourse

4. In contrast with General English

The variable characteristics are that

1. The language skills taught may be restricted [eg only speaking]

2. It may not be taught according to predetermined methodology

Robinson (in Evans 1998) has given four key criteria for an ESP course

• normally goal directed

• develops from needs analysis

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• limited time period

• for adults in homogeneous classes

From all these definitions it becomes amply clear that the framework, methodology and

objectives of ESP teaching differ from the teaching of English for General Purposes (EGP). The

present study has made use of this framework to build an ESP course for management students in

Kerala. It is within this framework that an attempt has been made to evolve a model to improve

English Language proficiency.

4.2.2 The classification of ESP

Kennedy et al (1984) suggest that ESP has traditionally been divided into two main areas:

English for Academic Purposes(EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes(EOP). EAP is

taught to students needing English for their studies. At higher levels of education it is based on

particular disciplines eg. English for Science and Technology, English for Medical Purposes and

English for Legal Purposes.

The term EOP refers to English that is not for academic purposes. Rather, the course is designed

for occupational or professional purposes. This places English for Business Purposes [EBP] as a

category within EOP. The present study falls in this category as it is concerned with improving

English proficiency of management students for employability. The study is based on the

traditional ESP framework and the methodology proposed for improved proficiency lies within

this broad outline.

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English for Business Purposes (EBP)

English for Business Purposes is currently an area where the greatest activity and growth has

been registered. There are several reasons for this. English Language Teaching trends have

always been a response to the felt needs of the language learners, and, at present English has

attained the position of an international language.

In the prevailing social context, three distinct movements have simultaneously resulted in a

universal need for English language in a professional context. These are: (1) the evolution of the

knowledge economy, (2) the globalization of business and economy, and (3) the diversity of the

workforce. In this context, the non-native speakers (NNS) of English far outnumber the native

speakers and the global spread of business demands that non-native speakers in English are

required to communicate at fairly high levels even though they may never have set foot in an

English speaking country. The population in the present study belongs to one such group of NNS

who nevertheless need to ready themselves for the communication challenges of a global

economy.

Business English

Business English has presented difficulties to researchers who tried to delimit the subject matter

to be included under it. One could define it as having two aspects: communication with the

public which is more akin to general English, and communication within the company or

between companies which needs more specialized language and the jargon associated with

particular businesses. However, this may be a rather limited view of Business English when one

considers that professional interactions in negotiations, presentations, interviews etc will call for

specific choices in language and its attendant skills.

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“Business English is a dynamic language activity in the workplace concerned with pragmatically

transmitting a fixed intention.” Kameda(2005)

English for General Business Purposes (EGBP) and English for Specific Business

Purposes (ESBP)

Evans distinguishes between EGBP and ESBP where the former is usually for pre-experience

learners or those who are at the very early stages of their career. These courses have a greater

affinity to the general courses in English for foreign learners except that the materials are set in a

business context. At this level the needs assessment is usually limited to the needs of the learner.

They teach a broad range of English communication through business settings rather than

English for specific business purposes. On the other hand, ESBP courses are run for job

experienced learners and focus narrowly on specific business communicative events and one or

two language skills most needed to fulfil the objectives.

The basic framework being followed in this course borrows from both models. The population is

made up of management students but the course is not a standard one that serves general

business purposes. The course design of the intervention is based on a needs analysis of the

communication needs in business organizations that the students usually join as soon as they are

placed, and , to that extent, it has a specific focus.

4.2.3 Approaches to ESP

Approaches to ESP have a wide base and many related disciplines have had an influence on this

movement. Sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, language pedagogy and applied linguistics have

impacted this movement and some specific approaches that have resulted have been identified:

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1. Register analysis

2. Rhetorical and Discourse analysis

3. Skill centred Approach

4. Learner centred approach

Register analysis

The concept of special languages i.e. register was put forth by Halliday. The underlying

assumption was that there are important differences between different fields of languages (eg.

Engineering and Business).This idea led the linguists to identify certain linguistic properties and

structural patterns which belong to particular registers. This quest led to the analysis of textbooks

of a particular field to uncover the structural patterns most often used and to design course

materials that would repeat and give practice in those particular patterns. The first significant

ESP textbook A.J. Herbert’s “The Structure of Technical English” published in 1965 was

designed to train learners in ‘the special structures and linguistic conventions of the English

used in technical and scientific writing.’

Several objections came up against the register based approach. Being based on grammar rather

than language skills, communication is neglected. Besides this, it was text based rather than role

based and so role performance and communicative competence were neglected.

Rhetorical and Discourse analysis

With the flaws detected in register analysis, an attempt was made to apply discourse analysis.

Discourse referred to a stretch of language either spoken or written, which would be analysed on

the basis of its cohesion. The pioneering work in this area was done by Lakstrom, Selinker and

Trimble. Jones (1974) applied discourse analysis in two ways: (1) by analyzing a text into a

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hierarchy of constituent parts and (2) by examining the use of discourse markers and connectives

to effect transitions in the text. Widdowson was considered as the main supporter of the

rhetorical communicative approach. The emphasis shifts from form to function and focuses on

the organizational patterns of scientific writing and the rhetorical process involved in a particular

kind of writing eg. definition, description, etc.

Widdowson recommends the use of course materials that are based on the particular area of

study but does not recommend the use of the actual text which may contain stylistic peculiarities

that may lead to a loss of communicative value of the material. English in Focus series is an

example of this and it puts these ideas into practice.

Discourse analysis has been used in several ways. It has been defined as a means of analyzing a

spoken or written text by dividing it into a hierarchy of constituent parts. It also identifies ways

by which transitions within the text is affected by means of discourse markers and connectives.

Most importantly it also analyses the rhetorical features like classification, cause/effect, etc-

Widdowson (1975). However it was felt that that the four language skills were not given

adequate importance and it was in this context that the skill-centred approach evolved.

Skill-centred Approach

This approach is based on the theory that different groups of learners in particular situations

require the use of different skill sets and the course achieves its objectives by restricting the skill

sets to what is required by that course. This has been formulated as an alternative to the register

based approach which was felt to be incomplete as the specific learners are not trained in the

skills and strategies necessary for active or passive communication. Proponents of skill based

teaching do not insist on subject specific course materials as the focus is on interpretation of

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surface forms and the strategies and skills employed are not confined to any particular subject

matter. The assumption was that the skills learnt through the exercises could be transferred to

the students’ own specific tasks. Dudley-Evans (1998) gives the example of the reading skills

course ‘Skills for Learning’ developed by the University of Malay ESP Project, which focuses

on certain specific skills associated with reading. The skill based approach was consistent with

the ideas of communicative language teaching. The main principle behind skill based courses

was that language teaching is not sufficient for the development of the ability to perform the

tasks required of people belonging to different professions. In addition to language use there was

also the need to address the thought processes that underpin language use.

The growth of needs analysis, a trend that ran parallel with the rise of the skill centred approach

was used to identify priorities among the four skills for each given communication situation.

Learner centred approach

Discussions in the late 1970s about the success of ESP courses over general courses for students

who needed English for study or work purposes led to Munby’s (1978) model for Needs

Analysis. Hutchinson et al (1987) brought forth the ideas that ESP concentrated too much on the

end product—or the Target Situation Analysis (TSA). They argued that students need the target

performance repertoire less than the underlying competence that would enable them to achieve

target performance. This underlying competence consisted of familiarity with technical and

colloquial language and vocabulary.

They introduced the concept of the learner-centred approach which gives due importance to the

process of learning and student motivation. One of the major aspects of this approach was the

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promotion of group activity in learning. This added to the authenticity of the methodology. This

methodology also takes into account individual differences in language learning.

4.3 Stages in the ESP model

The key stages of ESP are

1. Needs analysis

2. Course design

3. Teaching –learning

4. Assessment

4.3.1 Needs Analysis

If we look at the literature of related fields like management education we understand that the

concept of needs assessment is not exclusive to the ESP model. In his discussion on student

preferences in the course design of Marketing Management Taylor (2004) says that “…a key

principle is that good course design reflects an understanding and appreciation for diverse

student learning preferences.”

Rivers (1983) has put the matter across very simply: “Students determine our course objectives.

Our course objectives determine our content. Our techniques are selected and developed to

enable us to teach that content more effectively so that we may enable our students to realize

their objectives.” This is the basic concept from which the idea of needs analysis has developed.

Eberly et al (2001) explains the direct connection between learning outcomes and needs based

course designs in his discussion on the need for ongoing and continuous needs assessment. “It is

what students do, not what teachers do, that determines learning outcomes. Teachers cannot learn

for students—students have to do it for themselves and usually by themselves.”

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Genc(2008) reiterates the need for business schools to be constantly in touch with the needs of

the industry so as to provide a more coordinated curriculum in management education. General

language teaching also echoes these same principles.

Needs analysis is an important part of the ESP model. In the case of Business English it may be

even more vital than in the case of English for Science and Technology because learner’s needs

are much more varied and the range of skills needed are less predictable. Evans(1998) has

discussed various definitions and aspects of needs as given by different researchers.

What is meant by needs

Many terms have come to be associated with needs. Brindley ( in Evan1998). has referred to

objective and subjective needs. The former concept relates to the target situation analysis and the

latter pertains to the learning situation analysis. Similar in definition to these are the perceived

and felt needs put forth by Berwick ( in Evan1998). Hutchinson et al(1987) talks of necessities,

wants and lacks. These terms give us an idea of the different factors and perspectives that are

encompassed in a needs analysis.

In order to achieve a reliable needs analysis, various forms of pedagogic needs have to be

identified to provide information about learners and the educational environment. In doing so,

researchers identify three specified areas of needs analysis:

• Deficiency analysis. This gives information about what the learners’ learning needs are,

what students think they need and lack,

• Strategy analysis. This seeks to establish how learners wish to learn rather than what they

need to learn. By investigating the learners’ preferred learning styles and strategies, we

get a picture of the learners’ conception of learning, and

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• Means analysis. This pertains to an analysis of the environment in which the course is

going to be run. Stapa(2002)

Students' analysis can give two kinds of information. The first reflects learners' "possession" -

their current level in their second language (L2)-ESP, field knowledge in L1 and/or L2,

motivation, methods of learning they have experienced, etc. The second represents what learners

want to achieve - what traditionally has been called "ESP needs".

Thus we see that the needs analysis takes into account a number of cognitive and affective

variables that impact learning such as attitudes, motivation, wants, learning styles. This requires

a systematic consultation and negotiation between the learner and the teacher till a compromise

is reached between what the learner feels he needs and what the teacher thinks he ought to

provide.

There may be different ways of finding information about students’ needs and previous

experience. At the university and high school levels, it can be done through various

questionnaires, surveys, group discussions, individual talks, etc. For example, Business English

students may be asked to list areas in which everyone foresees using ESP (for instance, selling

insurance, opening bank accounts, etc.)

Needs Analysis in the present study

A comprehensive needs analysis was conducted at two levels. These corresponded to the

objective and subjective needs identified by Brindley and the perceived and felt need identified

by Berwick . On the one hand the target situation analysis was done at the managers level and on

the other, a present situation analysis was done at the management student level.

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4.3.2 Course design: Theoretical underpinnings

Course design is essentially the process by which the needs analysis of the target group is

interpreted to produce an integrated series of teaching –learning experiences that eventually

result in the realization of set objectives- Hutchinson et al (1987). The process of course design

includes producing a syllabus, selecting or writing materials based on this syllabus, developing a

methodology for teaching these materials and suggesting evaluation procedures by which

progress towards specified goals can be measured.

Hutchinson et al(1987) have identified three broad approaches to course design:

• Language centred course design

• Skill centred course design

• Learner centred course design

� Language centred course design

This approach starts with the needs analysis of the learner and then proceeds to formulate a

syllabus, materials for input and then evaluation. However the needs analysis is restricted to the

identification of the target situation and does not explore any other stage of course design. The

teaching-learning process is formulated largely independent of learner needs.

� Skill centred course design

In this approach , the emphasis shifts from a particular set of goals to the actual skills and

strategies that would help them to achieve these goals. This approach goes beyond identifying

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learner needs to analyzing the necessary skills for the particular learning situation. It concerns

itself with the processes of language use rather than of language learning

� Learner centred course design

A learner centred approach considers the learner at every stage of the course design. The needs

analysis would take into account not only language goals but also the learning styles and other

aspects that have an influence on the learner’s ability to achieve the objectives of the course.

The approach to course design in the present study is akin to Hutchinson et al(1987) learner-

centred approach. The learner is asked to identify their particular learning styles and give

suggestions on classroom activity, teaching methodology and evaluation patterns. They are also

asked to identify their own language weaknesses. The needs of the target situation are taken from

managers of business organizations and their assessment of the language weaknesses of the

learners is taken into consideration along with the data from the learners to formulate the course

and the teaching learning process.

Parameters of Course Design

Evans 1998 has put down some general parameters as far as course outlines are concerned.

• The course could either be extensive or intensive . An intensive course is introduced

when there are certain immediate and very focused objectives to be achieved and the

entire time is dedicated to the achievement of these objectives. They are usually short

term. An extensive course occupies only a portion of the students’ timetable. It has the

advantage of running parallel with the subject course and can relate to it and generally

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remain flexible. The disadvantage is the potential lack of continuity. Each class and the

material for it may have to be self contained in terms of both the aims of the class and the

materials used which do not allow for carryover between classes. The course design in

this study is extensive and the reading passages are supported with supplementary

material to avoid assignment of preparatory work for the classes.

• EOP courses could be either assessed or non assessed depending on their duration and

specific objectives. It is however common practice to use a standardized proficiency test

at the end of a longer EOP course. The assessment in this study is limited in its extent as

this is a partial intervention.

• The role of the teacher generally matches the expectations of the learner. The teacher

acts as a provider of input and activities. The continuum is from total controller to total

facilitator where the teacher keeps changing roles and moves between being a provider of

knowledge to facilitator or consultant as the need may be.

• The course could have a broad or narrow focus depending on whether the concentration

is on one skill or on a range of target events. A broader focus is sought in the present

study even though the aim is towards development of productive skills. It utilizes

receptive skills as a foundation for the development of productive skills.

• The courses are planned either as pre-experience or parallel with experience trainings.

The course in the present study is a combination because, technically, it is pre-

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experience, as its aim is an occupational purpose; but it is being taken for management

students who also need to apply some of these skills during the course.

• The specific purposes course is usually given to a homogeneous group. The group in

this study is shortlisted for homogeneity in language skills through a standardized

Business English test.

• The course design could be fixed or flexible. Flexibility is effected by negotiation

between the learners and the teacher and implementing change according to an ongoing

feedback analysis throughout the course. The present study has a more or less fixed

design as it is formulated on the prior analysis of the needs specified by managers and the

preferred learning styles of students. As the teaching model aims to generate a

standardized curriculum design for management students across several institutions, a

flexible course design is not practical.

Task-based course design

Discussions on syllabus design have been central in Communicative Language Teaching and one

of the first syllabus models to be proposed was described as the Notional syllabus –(Wilkins

1976). Wilkins differentiated between two specific approaches to syllabus design—the

‘synthetic’ and the ‘analytic’ approach. The synthetic approach used a graded method to teach

different parts of the language and acquisition was seen as a process of acquiring the parts until

the whole structure of language had been built up. The concept of mastery learning was based

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on this methodology where a new item was taught only after the previous item in the sequence

was mastered (Nunan2006).

In contrast to this was the ‘analytical approach.’ This was organized more in terms of the

learner’s purpose for language learning and the syllabus was organized around the kinds of

language areas that were necessary to help him meet these purposes. Task-based syllabus design

then, grew out of this alternative approach to language pedagogy.

Prabhu has been the acknowledged reference source for this particular syllabus type under

Communicative language teaching (Richards 1986). He carried out his widely known experiment

in language teaching through a five year project in teaching primary and secondary students in

Bangalore. He rejected the ideas of planned progression, pre-selection of material and form

focused activity. Instead he tried to achieve his objective through ‘meaning focused activity’ in

which “learners are occupied with understanding , extending or conveying meaning and cope

with language forms as demanded by the process. Attention to language forms is thus not

intentional but incidental to perceiving, expressing and organizing meaning.”

Prabhu had two objectives when he implemented this curriculum design. The first was to achieve

grammatical competence and the second was to enable the learner to deploy the language

structures in real life situations. The tasks in the classroom create a real need to communicate,

not just in a simulated way, but rather in a genuine interaction that is necessary for the process

of task completion. This powerfully supports the learner’s attempts to infer meaning and

strengthen newly formed language structures. “In task based teaching, lessons in the classroom

are not acts of texts, or language presentation but rather contexts for discourse creation”-Prabhu

(1987).

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Long et al (1998) extends this same idea by emphasizing that language learning happens when

the focus is on content and communication—“Learning is most effective when learners pay

attention to the form of language in response to the communicative need rather than in

anticipation of it.”

Newton (2001) stresses on the usefulness of a task based design in vocabulary acquisition. After

stating that a task based approach provides classroom experiences that approximate the demands

of authentic language use, he goes on to establish that “this approach enables learners to develop

strategies for managing new vocabulary while also maintaining a communicative focus.” Task

based teaching is especially effective for vocabulary enhancement because “in such tasks

learners meet language in ways that encourage the construction of multiple associations between

old and new knowledge in their lexical system.”

Nunan (2006) has listed some of the basic characteristics that are specific to task based learning:

• A needs-based approach to content selection

• An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

• The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

• The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the

learning process itself.

• An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing

elements to classroom learning.

• The linking of classroom language learning with language use outside the classroom.

Task based teaching procedure

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The task based syllabus design is termed as the ‘procedural syllabus’(Prabhu 1987). This is

used in two senses. The first is a specification of classroom activities or tasks, and the second

is the procedure involved in carrying out those tasks. Among the various task designs

proposed by proponents of task based learning, we find that the procedure involved has three

principal phases—the pre-task phase, the during task phase and the post-task phase- (Ellis

2006).

• The ‘pre-task’ activities serve to introduce new language to the learners or to mobilize

existing linguistic resources or to provide ways to interpret the tasks. This is done by

providing a model or observing how a similar task is done. Preparatory exercises that lead to

the performance can also be done. This could be in the form of vocabulary practice as it helps

in the successful completion of the task. Strategic planning of how to carry out the task is

also a useful pre-task activity.

• The ‘during task’ phase has to decide on performance options and process options.

Performance options include whether to set a time limit for the task and whether the learners

are allowed to borrow from the input given to complete the task. Accuracy in task

performance may require that the students are free from time restrictions . However if

fluency is the objective of the task performance activity, a time limit has to be set.

Regarding the use of input materials Prabhu (1987) has made a distinction between

borrowing and reproduction. While borrowing is student initiated, (the student borrows a

term from the input to express a self initiated meaning content), reproduction is teacher

directed. While the former is compatible with task based teaching, the latter is not. ‘During

task’ in the present study sets a more or less fixed time limit for the tasks as it has to fit in

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with a time table that includes other subjects and so in this case it is important that tasks are

pilot tested to fit into a particular time frame before including them in an actual course.

As far as ‘borrowing’ terms from input is concerned, proficiency being one of the main

objectives of the course, the superior data in the input is to be exploited to the maximum.

• The post-task phase affords a number of options. These have three major pedagogic goals;

(1) to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task, (2) to encourage reflection

on how the task was performed, and (3) to encourage attention to form, in particular to those

forms that proved problematic to the learners when they performed the task.

Lynch et al (2000) discusses the results of task repetition. Repetition in their study does not

mean strict duplication of the task but “..means something more like recycling, or retrial”

More progress was made in language learning with this method. Lynch repeats the idea of

attention or noticing activities in the post task phase so that learning can be consolidated

“…. we see a need for teachers to follow up task-based practice with ‘noticing’ activities, so

that we can help learners consolidate for the longer term what may otherwise be fragile

changes in their interlanguage.”

Role of materials

Materials play a crucial role in exposing learners to the language. Prabhu (1987) states

that the best preparation for production is continual comprehension. Since initial readiness

for production is not predictable and not likely to be the same for all learners, pedagogy must

(1) ensure continual deployment in comprehension (2) provide recurrent opportunities for

production in case any learner is ready to attempt it at a given point and (3)guard against a

possibility that an inability in production holds back deployment in comprehension. Prabhu

describes material as the language that becomes available to the learner. Since these

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discourse events are likely to be processed differently by different learners materials as

learning resources may vary from learner to learner within the same class. “In task-based

teaching, lessons in the class are not acts of texts, or language presentations but rather

contexts for discourse creation.”

Reading comprehension passages

Evans (1998) has identified four purposes that should be served by the materials used. The

present study has used reading comprehension texts as input material. The researcher will try

to justify the use of reading passages on these criteria:

1. As a source of language

2. As a learning support

3. For motivation and stimulation

4. For reference

� Reading passages as a source of language

Materials used in the class need to maximize exposure to the language. Reading passages are a

great source of exposure to the language. While doing a critical analysis of the audio-lingual

method of teaching, Rivers(1964) clearly distinguishes between adult language acquisition and

the natural methods of language learning as seen in a child. While the child proceeds from

hearing and speech to reading and written forms, adults follow a different path. In support of

teaching the language learner through written passages, Rivers posits that “if some of the

material is presented in written form, he is able to study it at leisure, to examine its construction,

and to organize what he is hearing and repeating.”

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When the aim of the course is towards improvement of productive skills as it is in the case of this

study Prabhu (1987) has given a clear reason for the role of input material—“….the best

preparation for production is continual comprehension, since it is recurrent deployment in

comprehension that can firm up the internal system, thus making it more deployable in

subsequent production.”

Evans (1998 )suggests that additional material should be provided along with the reading

passage which could be referred to while working through the exercises at the end of the reading

passage.

� Reading passages as a learning support

To enhance learning, materials must involve learners in thinking about and using the language.

The activities must stimulate cognitive and not mechanical processes. Macay et al (1979 )

attributes a complex set of interrelated skills to the process of reading. These involve:

• Word recognition and the mastery of basic vocabulary and such technical and specialized

vocabulary as may from time to time be required.

• The ability to see in the material the structures of sentences, paragraphs and longer

passages that constitute the thought unit.

• The intelligence to follow the thought unit and to make the necessary inferences.

• The ability to concentrate on the reading task.

The major objectives of the course in the present study is to improve productive skills, as well as

to understand and use the elements of organization in written communication. Both of these are

supported through the reading comprehension passages used for the study.

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� Reading as a source of motivation

To stimulate and motivate, materials need to be challenging, yet achievable. Widdowson(1978)

developed this idea further in the following statement

“ ..even if the learner is motivated to read a particular extract and is ready to

give an authentic response, he will be denied the opportunity if the linguistic

difficulty of the passage is such that he can’t process it.”

The difficulty level of input used was to find a steady berth in the input hypothesis where

Krashen (1981) claims that humans acquire languages in only one way—by receiving

‘comprehensible input’. We progress in language by understanding input that is a bit beyond our

current level of competence. We move from i (our current level) to i+1 (the next level) though

his theory that this progress is along the natural order is disputable. Related to this theory is

Vygotski’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) which is the term used to refer to the layer of

skill or knowledge which is just beyond that with which the learner is currently capable of

coping—in Williams (1997). When we provide input at the i+1 level we are actually targeting

the learner’s ZPD and assuming his readiness to acquire language at that level. Over the years

this concept of language teaching has gone largely unchallenged and we hear echos of the same

idea in Macaro(2003)—“The interactive model can be successfully employed as a learner

strategy if the level of the text and the level of the task are challenging yet attainable.”

To ensure the right level for the subjects in the present study, the source was the reading extracts

in the English section of the Management Aptitude Tests and the Common Aptitude Tests. Any

student wishing to take up a course in Management has to appear for one of these exams, and

admissions to the programmes are decided on the basis of these scores. It can be considered as a

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standardized level of language that management students would consider as comprehensible and

challenging.

Another motivating aspect is the choice of subjects for reading. Coady (1979) gives his opinion

of how subjects should be chosen:

The subject of reading materials should be of high interest and relate well to the

background of the reader, since strong semantic input can help compensate

when syntactic control is weak. The interest and background knowledge will

enable the student to comprehend at a reasonable rate and keep him involved in

the material inspite of syntactic difficulty.

However there are varying opinions on the choice of subject matter. At one end of the

scale Rivers(1964) advocates that “.. ..foreign language lessons can be varied in content,

full of interest, colourful and exciting, with use of a variety of techniques……will gain in

maintaining the student’s enthusiasm….and will lead to greater attainments.” At the other

end, Munby(1978) firmly believes in using subject specific materials. Hutchinson et al

(1981) bring up some of the problems of using subject specific text. Firstly, this kind of

extract may only be comprehensible if the reader has enough background knowledge on

the subject. Secondly, while comprehension and production may be achieved in the

particular linguistic context the overall goal of using language for communication may

not be achieved within the limited context of learning. However the specific purposes

aspect of the course is acknowledged when he observes that “motivation being

instrumental, the ESP materials should look relevant”. In this context he suggests a

solution that can be considered as the best option for the students in the present study.

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“When we say that the student needs technical English….what we mean

is not the specific vocabulary of his own subject but the general language

of the technologically aware consumer society”

Applied to the business context, it means the language in business articles in newspapers,

business magazines etc. Using these texts as reading input would result in strengthening the

fundamentals of communication .in the specific context of the learners.

More important than academic analysis is the ability to handle the ‘macro

structure’ of a piece of technical information… the ability to produce a

description that proceeds in a logical fashion from introduction to

conclusion…..The students must be able to impose a coherent structure on the

information they receive and produce …..Without this, both comprehension and

production will suffer.

The ESL student needs the ability to mobilize the resources of general English to solve technical

problems. The emphasis needs to be on group discussions, problem solving tasks, presentation of

information, etc.

� Reading materials as reference

Taking into account that English courses need to go alongside the regular academic programme,

it becomes necessary that the materials are well laid out and self explanatory so that they can be

deployed for productive activity in class without too much of outside reference. In the context of

the present study the reading comprehension passages have been well supported by

supplementary content that would act as reference for the exercises at the end of the passage as

well as for the tasks to be carried out.

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Selection of material

All ESP practitioners have to be good providers of material. The carrier content must match the

real content and activities must be provided that will realize the objectives of the course. In the

choice of reading text, Widdowson(1978) points out certain fallacies that the material provider

can fall into. He categorizes texts into 3 types: extracts, simplified versions and simple accounts.

The first one is a genuine instance of language use but here he differentiates genuineness from

authenticity. The passage may be a genuine extract but if it does not correspond to the subject’s

normal communication activities, it cannot be termed authentic. Simplified versions are genuine

versions of the original produced by lexical and syntactic substitution. Since the focus here is

lexical and syntactic rather than on the discourse, it results in distortion. Simple accounts can be

considered as more authentic as this is done by recasting information abstracted from some

source to suit a particular kind of reader.

Detracting from the authenticity of the text also results when providers of material try to

artificially manipulate a text. Sometimes reading comprehension passages intended for

manifestation of selected parts of language system exhibit a very high occurrence of particular

structures. “It has something of the character of a display case and its value as discourse is

decreased accordingly.” This exposure to restricted elements is “at the expense of a normal

realization of a system in use” -Widdowson (1978)

Exercises for reading texts

The exercises at the end of the reading texts of the teaching units for the present study are aimed

towards productive skill enhancement and though writing is the macro skill that is mainly tested,

the development of this macro skill is achieved through the practice of the other macro skills as

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well. The exercises behind each passage have two aims: (1) to test the understanding of the

passage using productive abilities and (2)to prepare the learner for the tasks in the second part of

each unit.

The first aim is fulfilled by formulating questions that are framed to test their capability to

understand the text and reproduce the information either in visual format or in expanded or

summarized versions. Rivers(1983) speaks of how to ensure genuine understanding and

production

It is therefore important to train students in the perceiving of syntactic

groupings of words as units. To achieve this we should we should encourage

our students to repeat what they hear in meaningful segments, and we should

ask questions that require meaningful segments, rather than single words as

answers….We should always encourage giving answers in their own words

….This encourages real processing rather than superficial ‘playback’.

Ellis (2005) also advocates the use of activities that provide plenty of opportunities for

output so that learners could develop discourse skills.

The second objective is met through exercises that encouraged students to employ logical skills

in developing a point through examples and details picked up from supplementary material.

Widdowson points towards this when he talks of exercises “to get the learner to participate

actively in the reasoning process which is required for interpretation to take place.”

Nunn (2006) defines the role of exercises more explicitly . Exercises directly support the ‘tasks’

of a task-based learning programme. Nunn quotes Candlin’s differentiation between tasks and

exercises. Exercises have the role of “serving as sequenceable preliminaries to, or supporters of

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tasks”, whereas ‘tasks’ are more inclusive activities, engaging students in a variety of

interlocking processes, and encouraging them to “practise the integrated use of language, acquire

language development strategies and use language meaningfully and creatively.”

The exercises in the present study have been formulated with these objectives in mind. Questions

have been aimed towards focusing on the main point, expansion of content heavy phrases or

sentences, examples of exercises that build discourse skills. Other exercises were directly aimed

at providing support for the task in the unit. Thus the exercises and the task formed a

comprehensive unit. Nunn points out to this integration when he talks of Candlin’s

differentiation between tasks and exercises

This is a useful distinction, because it allows us to consider a combination

of enabling ‘exercises’ and ‘tasks’ in larger, integrated units of learning,

which might span several lessons. We may then continually change the

focus between the ‘parts’ and the ‘whole’. The smaller ‘exercises’ are used

in support of ‘tasks’ and the ‘tasks’ in support of reinforcing language

learning.

Tasks

Nunan (2006) has discussed the definition of task at different levels. The most basic definition

of a task is by Long (1985) which says “..a task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for

others, freely or for some reward.” From this non-technical, non-linguistic explanation, Nunan

takes us to more explicit definitions of task and its role in language learning. A very broad

definition is given by Breen (1987). Task is assumed to refer to a range of workplans which have

the overall purposes of facilitating language learning – from the simple and brief exercise type,

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to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and

decision-making.

Skehan (1998), drawing on a number of other writers, puts forward five key characteristics of a

task.

• Meaning is primary.

• Learners are not given other people’s meaning to regurgitate.

• There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities.

• Task completion has some priority.

• The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.

Perhaps Nunan’s (2006) own definition is the most focused and comprehensive one we have:

My own definition is that a task is a piece of classroom work that

involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or

interacting in the target language while their attention is focused

on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express

meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather

than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of

completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in

its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end.

Nunan distinguishes between a target task and a pedagogical task. Target tasks, as the name

implies, refer to uses of language in the world beyond the classroom. Pedagogical tasks are those

that occur in the classroom.

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A more detailed explanation of pedagogical tasks and its purpose in language teaching is given

by Richard et al(in Nunan 2006)

The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is

said to make language teaching more communicative … since it

provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the

practice of language for its own sake.

Having defined the term ‘task’ to capture its essence we will now try to state its role in the

language teaching process in terms of the specific objectives they serve. The input data, along

with the related procedures that the learner undertakes to complete the task form the basic

framework of the task. The former acts as a resource for the process of task completion.

Besides this, there is one more important aspect of task design, namely task complexity. This

refers to the specific features in the task work plan i.e. the complexity of the given data, the

number of steps that have to be followed and the number of possible outcomes. The difficulty

level of the task also has an impact on language learning. Skehan and his colleagues (in Elder et

al 2002) have proposed that more complex tasks direct learners’ attention to context and divert

attention away from form. Simple tasks therefore generate more fluent and more accurate

speech, as opposed to more complex tasks which generate more complex speech at the expense

of accuracy and fluency.

Robinson (2001) distinguishes between task complexity and task difficulty. The latter is

dependent on the learner’s ability and cognitive level. This aspect of tasks has to be taken into

consideration while sequencing tasks. Prabhu(1987) refers to the principle of ‘reasonable

challenge’ in task based teaching “which aims to ensure that tasks in the classroom become

steadily more complex at a pace determined by the learner’s ability to cope, and there is…..a

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general increase in linguistic complexity as task complexity increases.” This is again based on

Krashen’s i+1 model for input material.

The present study also applies this principle by breaking up the final task into several

components that act as tasks in their own right thus constituting a step-by-step process in

increasing task complexity.

Course design in the present study

The present study departs from the traditional notion of task based design in certain important

ways. If we take Prabhu as a point of reference, it is difficult to agree with some of his

contentions that may be of relevance in a very controlled context but can hardly be generalized.

His arguments about the limited capacity of prescribed materials to serve as language input are

not convincing. He advocates the use of a procedural syllabus that is simply concerned with

deployment of language but does not specify a reliable source for good language. His heavy

dependence on the teacher as a source of good language input is questionable in a larger context.

Such heavy reliance on the capacity and ability of the teacher (which is a variable component)

casts doubts on whether improvement in language proficiency of the students can be measured

accurately. However, his contention about the capacity of the task based design to create

situations where genuine communication is called for, cannot be denied.

The present study has thus attempted to combine the task based curriculum with reading

comprehension materials in order to give a greater exposure to good language inputs to the

learners. As the tasks are connected with the reading material provided, the researcher believes

that, rather than simply recycling the existing levels of teacher and student language in the

performance of the task, there is a reliable source of language that can be also deployed in the

process of carrying out the task.

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Another departure from the traditional framework has been in the choice of tasks. While tasks in

the traditional syllabus design are merely vehicles or contexts for discourse creation, the tasks in

the present study have been arrived at as a result of a needs analysis of the target situation. In

other words, the tasks are authentic goals of the course design along with the goals of improving

language proficiency. In order to design an ESP course for management students, the

communication tasks that management students need to be proficient in are decided on the basis

of a needs analysis and these tasks form the syllabus for the task based course. Thus the

sequencing of tasks does not have the loose structure as seen in Prabhu’s design. Many of the

tasks serve as a support for the final list of communication tasks that the students need to be

proficient in.

While the desired outcomes of the present study may seem comparatively ambitious, the very

authenticity of the tasks, proficiency in which is an important objective of the course, lend

greater motivation to students who may otherwise experience a sense of purposelessness in

carrying out tasks that only serve as a means towards an end.

4.3.3 Teaching-Learning Process

The course or syllabus design decides the input for the second language learner. However the

objectives of language learning cannot be ensured with even the best inputs given. Intermediate

between syllabus inputs and the achievement of learner objectives is the teaching-learning

process. If this process has to translate itself into any measure of achievement in second language

learning it is also necessary to examine some of the claims made by researchers that attitude and

motivation play a central role in second language teaching. In general, researchers are in

agreement that measures of achievement in second language are substantially related to measures

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of attitude and motivation(Gardner et al quoted in Spolsky1989). Gardner’s earlier works in this

area suggest that attitude leads to motivation which in turn leads to learning. Differences in

motivation could affect how successfully an individual learns a language.

Attitude

It is generally agreed upon that the acquisition of a second language is a long and difficult

process and that a stable attitudinal base is needed to maintain motivation for these long periods.

Brown (discussed in Ellis 1986) refers to ‘attitudes’ as a set of beliefs that the learner holds

towards members of the target language group and also towards his own culture. Sterne (1983)

refers to three types of attitudes: attitude towards the target language (TL) community, attitude

towards learning the TL and the general attitude towards language learning as such.

As research developed further, other levels were introduced to the basic attitude-motivation

model by Gardner. Schumann’s(1978) acculturation model claims that the degree to which

learners acculturate to the target language group will control the degree to which they acquire

theTL. Spolsky’s(1989) model starts with the social context which was believed to have a certain

influence on attitude to learning. ‘Second language learning of any kind takes place in a social

context. The social contexts of both family and home, the community, city and state are relevant’

and at the home level these include decisions to speak a certain language or to encourage or

discourage learning. The social context develops the learners’ attitudes in two directions: the

attitude developed towards the community speaking the target language or ‘integrativeness’ as

Gardner terms it, and the attitude towards the learning situation. The latter would include the

perception of the learner about the learning task and its outcomes. In Spolsky’s words “ These

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two kind of attitudes and specific learning goals lead to the development of motivation on the

part of the learner.”

Much of the research on the non linguistic determinants of language acquisition point out to

attitude and motivation as strong predictors of language learning. These, in turn, were the

function of social, cultural and personality factors. Gardner’s (1960 ) study identifies parental

encouragement as one important factor that influences positive attitudes to the acquisition of the

target language. Thus we can conclude that there are a number of distinctive attitudinal factors

that lead to motivation. This gives importance to the formulation of the attitude tool on the basis

of close observation of the target group over a long period of time along with what is available

from literature.

Samaie (2006) points out that “a number of quite diverse attitudes are associated with the

motivation to learn a second language” in view of the fact that the ESL student’s orientation can

be instrumental or integrative.

Attitudes are generally believed to be a foundation of the motivation. Cheng et al(2007) states

that attitudes influence the individual's level of motivation and differences in motivation affect

how successfully an individual learns the language.

Motivation

Motivation can be defined as goal directed behavior. “Motivation provides the primary impetus

to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious

learning process.” Dornyei 1998 (quoted in Macaro2003). It refers to the student’s attitude,

interest and effort to learn a foreign language. Research points out that motivation levels will be

high only if students expect to succeed and to value that success.

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If one attempts to measure motivation one notices that “…the motivated individual exhibits

many behaviours, feelings, cognitions, etc., that the individual who is unmotivated does not”

(Samaie2006). Some of these are apparent when individuals take extra effort, are persistent and

attentive to the task at hand, have goals, desires, and aspirations, enjoy the activity, experience

greater encouragement from success and disappointment from failure, makes attributions

concerning success and/or failure, and makes use of strategies to aid in achieving goals.

Gardner et al(1972) sets out four aspects of motivation: a goal, effortful behaviour, a desire to

attain the goal, and favourable attitudes towards the activity in question. They introduced the

ideas of ‘integrative motivation’ to refer to language learning for personal growth and cultural

enrichment, and ‘instrumental motivation’ for language learning for more immediate and

practical goals. They confirmed the results of their previous studies with the controversial claim

that all individuals were capable of learning a second language if they had exposure to the target

language community and were positively oriented to them. According to them achievement in

this area was possible despite differences in measures of aptitude among language learners.

These initial explorations led to the notions of integrative and instrumental motivation.

Integrative motivation

The concept of integrative motivation underlines that acquiring a language is positively related to

the desire or willingness to integrate with the community through the use of the target language.

It views the goal of "learning the language" as an intermediate one, however, where the ultimate

goal is viewed as a psychological integration with the other community. Gardner’s view that this

is the only form of motivation that can lead to meaningful language learning has been refuted by

many others who have posited that there could be other forms of motivation which have led to

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successful language acquisition. Gardner’s view is supported by evidence from students who

take foreign language classes as electives compared with students who take classes as a degree

requirement; the former will likely experience higher levels of achievement. Similarly, those

students who have visited foreign countries may be more appreciative of the benefits of foreign

language acquisition and thus will be more motivated to learn the language than others. This

could be an indicator of integrative motivation among the students.

Instrumental motivation

The contrasting form of motivation is referred to as an instrumental orientation toward the

language- learning task. One’s motivation towards language learning may not be interpersonally

oriented as is the case with integrative motivation. One could describe this as being more self

oriented as the motivation for learning may be for social recognition or economic advantage.

Samaie (2006) sees these two levels of motivation as two ends of a scale which has at one

extreme –“an integratively oriented learner who, in considering the learning task, is oriented

principally towards representatives of a novel and interesting ethnolinguistic community, people

with whom he would like to develop personal ties”—and at the other extreme—“ the

instrumentally oriented language learner is interested mainly in using the cultural group and their

language as an instrument of personal satisfaction, with few signs of an interest in the other

people per se.” For example he might consider the language learning task as a means of

becoming more cultured (in the superficial sense of the term) or as equipping him with a skill or

tool useful for some future occupation, with little genuine regard for the people or the culture

represented by the other language. Though Gardner’s backing of integrative motivation is most

widely known in literature there are many experiments whose results run contrary to this.

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Lukmani’s (1972) experiment with L2 female learners in Bombay clearly shows how

instrumental orientation can also be equally effective for language learning. Liu(2007) has

recorded a similar experience with Chinese students where the findings indicated that

“instrumental orientation is the major driving force for learning English at the undergraduate

level.” Warden et al (2009) study on EFL learners in Taiwan showed much greater instrumental

orientation compared with integrative orientation among the groups under study.

Still others like Burstall (1975) have found that these two types are not watertight compartments.

In his study among French primary school students, he found that motivational characteristics

were neither exclusively integrative nor instrumental.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Closely akin to these definitions of integrative and instrumental motivation are the explanations

of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Onwuegbuzie et al.(1999) quotes Csikszentmihalyi and

Nakamura’s definition which says “When the only reason for performing an act is to gain

something outside the activity itself,…the motivation is likely to be extrinsic. When the

experience of doing something generates interest and enjoyment, and the reason for performing

the activity lies within the activity itself, then the motivation is likely to be intrinsic.” Harter

(1981) views intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as opposite ends of a continuum though she does

say that both ‘intrinsic interest and extrinsic reward may correlate, as it were, to motivate

learning”

The differences in results from the several researches could be explained on the basis that

integratively motivated ESL speakers in countries of the target language may do better with

Target Language (TL) learning than those who were instrumentally motivated. Gardner’s studies

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conducted in Canada and America point to this conclusion. However the findings of researchers

in the Asian context seem to support the view that instrumental motivation is a greater driver of

language learning. Liu (2007) gives a possible explanation for this. “……due to limited contact

with English native speakers or the target language, the students were more instrumentally than

integratively motivated to learn English.”

Perhaps the best conclusion one can draw has been summarized by Samaie(2006). “Students

might enter language programmes with the goal of integration; they might enter because of some

requirement. The expectation is, however, that where such a motive develops, or exists, second

language acquisition will be made successful.”

Learning styles

Motivation has to be maintained over long periods of non-intensive teaching and Brumfit (1981)

suggests a number of ways that the teacher could sustain this by creating a warm and positive

classroom environment where the teacher instills confidence into the learner.

However one important way by which motivation can be maintained is by understanding the

preferred learning styles of the students. Learning styles are not confined to the teaching of

languages alone. Research on learning experience of management students in core business

subjects shows that when students are taught in a manner consistent with the way they learn, they

not only have a favorable attitude toward the learning experience but they also perform better.

Taylor(2004) quotes from Dunn et al’s experimental study which showed that students (1)

performed significantly better when the teaching style matched the learning style and (2) also

had significantly more favorable attitudes in that condition.

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Learning styles refer to consistent and enduring preferences within the individual. Each learner

practices these consciously or unconsciously. Within a group some may learn better through

pictures and diagrams. These are called visual learners while others may prefer interaction and

participation. These are called kinesthetic learners.

Learning styles are culture dependent as has been seen in Wintergerst’s study among Rusian and

Asian students (Riazi 2007). He has also quoted from Reid who has categorized learning styles

into 3 levels (1) cognitive (2) sensory and (3)personality. Cognitive learning styles are classified

as :

1. Field independent versus field dependent—where the former class of learners prefer a

step-by-step process wherein they analyze facts and then proceed to ideas. The latter

group prefers learning in context and lean towards more holistic methods of learning.

2. Analytic versus global – Analytic learners prefer individual learning and individual goals

whereas global learners prefer experiential learning through group work.

3. Reflective versus impulsive—reflective learners take time to think of the different

options before responding while impulsive learners come up with immediate responses.

The next category is called the sensory learning style. Learners in this category are divided

according to the particular kind of sensory intake through which learning takes place most

effectively. The auditory learner learns through the ear, the visual learner through the eyes, the

tactile learner through hands-on experiences, the kinesthetic learner through physical

experience/body movement and the haptic learner through touch.

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Akin to these are the environment learning styles where the physical learner is sensitive to

variables such as temperature, light, food, etc while the sociological learner is affected by factors

such as teamwork and role of teachers.

The third category is called the personality learning style which lists a number of learner types:

1. Extroversion versus introversion where the former describes a social learner and the latter

describes an individual learner.

2. Sensing versus perception where sensing learners learn from observable data and

perception learners derive meaning from experiences.

3. Thinking versus feeling where the former prefers an impersonal and logical style and the

latter would be more subjective in learning style preference.

4. Judging versus perceiving where judging styles refer to analytic methods to arrive at

conclusions while perceiving learners learn along the process and do not look solely at

final outcomes.

5. Ambiguity –tolerant versus ambiguity intolerant which differentiates between learners

who learn best in less structured formats and those who are comfortable with more rigid

learning situations.

6. Left brained versus right brained where it is theorized that the left brained learners have

analytical and reflective styles and are visual learners while the right brained learners are

more impulsive and auditory in style.

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Rivers(1983) talks of the preferred modalities of learning of the students “Some learn best

through the ear, some through the eye. They also learn at different rates and employ quite

different strategies for understanding and retaining the material to be learnt.”

Knowing the learning styles becomes useful in the formulation of strategies that suit the

learners thus making the most of a learning situation. The teaching-learning process can be

adapted to the learning styles of the students in that one can decide whether to use reading

aloud strategies or diagrammatic representations according to the identified styles of the

learners.

Learner strategies can be divided into three types:

• Learning strategies that contribute directly into the language system that the learner is

in the process of acquiring. Inductive inferencing is an example of this category.

Learning word meaning from context is an exercise that employs this strategy.

• Communication strategies that use group or pair work to ensure exposure to the target

language

• Social strategies that contribute indirectly to learning eg watching films or doing

roleplays

Each of these has proved to be efficacious in the development of language skills in learners.

Rivers has also recommended the use of social strategies in language teaching. “…practice does

not have to be boring and meaningless. It can take the form of games, competition and

spontaneous role playing.”

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Role playing is a very popular learning strategy. It brings emotion into a situation and aids true

communication. Rivers suggests methods for role play in classrooms

• Role play by students acting out situations they have studied and extend this to

include problems that are not in the text.

• New situations introduced with an element of potential conflict as members work out

possible solutions.

• Simulation games where a particular situation is identified with distinctly defined

participants who have conflicting interests in the project under discussion.

Learner preferences have also been seen in the area of the teacher –student relationship where

the role of the teacher as a consultant could slowly shift to one of negotiation, and the class

may be either student centred or teacher centred as the case may be.

In his study with Iranian EFL students Riazi et al (2007) also looks into the preferences of

students as far as feedback from teachers is concerned. The mode of correction adopted by

teachers is usually looked upon as the prerogative of the teacher or the course designer. Prabhu

(1987) distinguishes between ‘incidental correction’ and ‘systematic correction.’ The former is

carried out when teachers casually present correct forms in the form of a paraphrase of the

student’s production or as a response to a doubt raised by the student. The latter involves a larger

interruption of ongoing activity to focus learner’s attention on the error. While Prabhu

recommends incidental correction for task based teaching, a more learner centred approach may

be to find out how the learner would like the correction to be done. Williams(1997) quoting

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Lepper et al, comments on feedback to learners: if it is interpreted by them as informational

rather than controlling it is likely to increase their motivation towards certain tasks….’

One of the major decisions as far as the teaching-learning process in task based teaching is

concerned is the use of paired work or group work as it is essentially in these socially and

linguistically matched groups that interaction takes place best with the affective filter

Krashen(1981) in its lowest position. This is an important condition for language acquisition

through this methodology. As Ellis (2006) puts it “This is one reason why pair and group work

are seen as central to task-based teaching” However, group work is viewed differently by

different proponents of this methodology. Prabhu [1987] does not advocate it because he feels it

is necessary that the learners are exposed to superior data or to language that come from well set

internal systems. This can be ensured only through the teacher and the materials. Also group

work does not suit every learner so the choice is left to the learner to consult others if he wishes

to.

Once the learner’s styles and preferences have been taken into account, it paves the way for a

teaching-learning experience that will sustain motivation among language learners and thus lead

to greater overall gains.

4.3.4 Assessment

Assessment has been defined as a process of measuring performance, and testing is a long

accepted practice of assessment. Assessment can be considered as a feedback as well as a

measure of competence. Assessment also aids reinforcement, confidence building and

involvement. Self and peer assessment aids independent judgement which are vital for continued

progress— Evans et al(1998)

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Bachman(2000) has detailed a comprehensive review of literature in the area of Specific

Purposes language testing. The early work on Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) testing

(Morrow 1977; Caroll 1981; Weir 1983) was largely based on Munby’s ESP framework. The

next stage saw a great deal of activity in this area which resulted in large scale standardized LSP

testing (eg. International English Language Testing System IELTS). Research and developments

in this area have widened its scope to include LSP testing for professionals in the field of Science

and Technology, Health professionals, international teaching assistants, etc.

Douglas 2000 refers to two aspects of LSP testing that differentiates it from General Purpose

Language Testing. They are :

1 Authenticity of task

2. Interaction between language knowledge and Specific Purpose (SP) content knowledge

Authenticity of task means that the ESP test tasks should share critical features of tasks in the

target situation.

Interaction between language knowledge and SP content or background knowledge is

perhaps the defining feature of Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) testing in comparison with

General Purposes Language Testing where background knowledge is discounted or minimized as

much as possible. Douglas argues that “background knowledge is a necessary integral part of the

concept of SP language ability”

Roever (2001) reiterates these views in his opinion of LSP assessment.”The design of LSP

assessment tasks must therefore be grounded in an analysis of the real-world language use

situation, and tasks must engage test takers’ linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge in a way

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similar to the way a real world task would engage it. Only this way will tasks allow appropriate

inferences to be drawn from test scores as to the test taker’s likely performance in the real

world.”

Several opinions have been voiced against this type of testing because it lacks theoretical

support. Even a close imitation of the target situation may result in test takers who can perform

on the test, but cannot apply their skills in authentic target situations. Douglas counters this

argument by drawing a clear distinction between ability and performance in LSP tests and it is

the interaction between ability and task characteristics in a test situation that leads to an

interpretation of how far the test taker is capable of taking on the challenges of the target

language use situation

Douglas(2000) has outlined some of the essential features of SP language testing:

• Criterion referenced(CR) testing: This is in contrast to Norm referenced (NR) testing

that is usually found in General Purpose Language testing. While NR testing is designed

to maximize distinctions among test takers by ranking them according to their ability. CR

testing aims to establish a criterion and those who achieve the criterion level are

considered successful

• Authenticity : Douglas explains this aspect of LSP tests as the attempt “to engage the test

taker in test tasks, performance on which can be interpreted as evidence of

communicative language ability with reference to the target situation.”

• Inferences: Inferences are judgements about test takers on the basis of their performance

on the tests. They can be at three levels: language ability, SP background knowledge and

SP language ability. Here, however Douglas specifies that particular domain knowledge

will play a part in the assessment of test takers. “…if we are interested in making

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inferences about test takers’ ability to use language in specific situations, then

background knowledge associated with those situations must be a part of the construct we

wish to measure with our tests.”

Douglas then goes on to generate a framework for test design that combines data collected from

participants with inputs from subject specialists.

Assessment in the present study

The present study applies on-going assessment techniques culled from the needs analysis of the

preferred learning styles of the management students and suggests criteria that can be taken into

consideration for the final assessment.