chapter 5, nancy langton and stephen p. robbins, fundamentals of organizational behaviour, third...

Chapter 5, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 5-1Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Chapter 5

Working in Teams


Chapter Outline• Teams vs.Groups: What’s the Difference?

• Why Have Teams Become So Popular?

• Stages of Group and Team Development

• Creating Effective Teams

• Twenty-First Century Teamwork: Virtual Teams

• Beware! Teams Aren’t Always the Answer


Groups and Teamwork1. What are teams and groups?

2. Does everyone use teams?

3. Do groups and teams go through stages while they work?

4. How do we create effective teams?

5. How do virtual teams work?

6. Are teams always the answer?


Teams vs. Groups: What’s the Difference?

• Groups– Two or more people with a common relationship.

• Teams– A small number of people who work closely together

toward a common objective and are accountable to one another.


Why Have Teams Become So Popular?

• A Conference Board of Canada report found that more than 80 of it 109 respondents used teams.

• In the U.S.:– 80 percent of Fortune 500 companies have half or more of

their employees on teams– 68 percent of small U.S. manufacturers use teams in their

production area.

• The extensive use of teams creates the potential for an organization to generate greater outputs with no increase in inputs.


Exhibit 5-1Stages of Group Development


Stages of Group and Team Development

• Stage I: Forming– Characterized by much uncertainty

• Stage II: Storming– Characterized by intragroup conflict

• Stage III: Norming– Characterized by close relationships and

cohesiveness


Stages of Group Development

• Stage IV: Performing– The stage when the group is fully functional

• Stage V: Adjourning– The final stage in group development for

temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance


Putting the Five-Stage Model Into Perspective

• Groups do not necessarily progress clearly through the stages one at a time.

• Groups can sometimes go back to an earlier stage.

• Conflict can sometimes be helpful to the group.

• Context can matter: airline pilots can immediately reach performing stage.


The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

• Phase 1– The first meeting sets the group’s direction.– The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.

• Transition– A transition takes place at the end of the first phase, which

occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time.

– The transition initiates major changes.• Phase 2

– A second phase of inertia follows the transition.• Last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.


Exhibit 5-2 The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

Completion

Transition

FirstMeeting

Phase 1

Phase 2

(High)

(Low)

A (A+B)/2

Time

B

Per

form

ance


Exhibit 5-3 Characteristics of an Effective Team

• Clear purpose

• Informality

• Participation

• Listening

• Civilized disagreement

• Consensus decisions

• Open communication

• Clear rules and work assignments

• Shared leadership

• External relations

• Style diversity

• Self-assessment Source: G. M. Parker, Team Players and Teamwork: The New Competitive Business Strategy (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990), Table 2, p. 33. Copyright © 1990 by Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Exhibit 5-4A Model of Team Effectiveness

Teameffectiveness

Context

• Adequate resources• Leadership and structure• Climate of trust• Performance evaluation and rewards

Work design

• Autonomy• Skill

variety•Task identity•Task significance

Composition

• Skills• Personality

• Roles• Diversity• Size

• Member flexibility• Member preference for teamwork

Process

• Common purpose•Specific goals•Team efficacy

• Managed level of conflict• Accountability


Creating Effective Teams – Context

• Adequate Resources

• Leadership and Structure

• Climate of Trust

• Performance Evaluation and Rewards


Creating Effective Teams – Composition

• Skills

• Personality

• Roles

• Diversity

• Size

• Member Flexibility

• Members’ Preference for Teamwork


Skills

• Teams need the following skills to perform effectively:– Technical expertise

– Problem-solving and decision-making skills

– Interpersonal skills


Roles

• Task-oriented roles– Roles performed by group members to ensure that the

tasks of the group are accomplished.

• Maintenance roles– Roles performed by group members to maintain good

relations within the group.

• Individual roles– Roles performed by group members that are not

productive for keeping the group on task.


Exhibit 5-5 Roles That Build Task Accomplishment

Initiating Stating the goal or problem, making proposals about how to work on it, setting time limits

Seeking information and opinions

Asking group members for specific factual information related to the task or problem

Providing information and opinions

Sharing information or opinions related to the task or problems

Clarifying Helping one another understand ideas and suggestions that come up in the group

Elaborating Building on one another’s ideas and suggestions

Summarizing Reviewing the points covered by the group and the different ideas stated so that decisions can be based on full information

Consensus Testing Periodic testing about whether the group is nearing a decision or needs to continue discussion

Source: “Team Processes,” in Managing for the Future, ed. D. Ancona, T. Kochan, M. Scully, J. Van Maanen, and D. E. Westney (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western College Publishing, 1996), p. 9.


Exhibit 5-5 Roles That Build and Maintain a Team

Harmonizing Mediating conflict among other members, reconciling disagreements, relieving tensions

Compromising Admitting error at times of group conflict

Gatekeeping Making sure all members have a chance to express their ideas and feelings and preventing members from being interrupted

Encouraging Helping a group member make his or her point. Establishing a climate of acceptance in the group

Source: “Team Processes,” in Managing for the Future, ed. D. Ancona, T. Kochan, M. Scully, J. Van Maanen, and D. E. Westney (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western College Publishing, 1996), p. 9.


Diversity

• Impact of diverse groups– Diversity in personality, age, gender, and experience

promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity and idea generation, which leads to improved decision making.

– Cultural diversity in groups initially leads to more difficulty in building cohesion, gaining satisfaction, being productive.

• Problems pass with time (certainly by three months).

• Culturally diverse groups bring more viewpoints out.


Exhibit 5-6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity

Advantages• Multiple perspectives• Greater openness to

new ideas• Multiple interpretations• Increased creativity• Increased flexibility• Increased problem-

solving skills

Disadvantages• Ambiguity• Complexity• Confusion• Miscommunication• Difficulty in reaching a

single agreement• Difficulty in agreeing

on specific actionsSource: Adapted from N. J. Adler, International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 4th ed., p. 109. Copyright © 2002. By permission of South-Western College Publishing, a division of International Thomson Publishing, Cincinnati, OH 45227.


Group Size

• Research shows that:– Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks.

– When problem solving, larger groups do better.

• Social Loafing– The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when

working collectively than when working individually.

– To reduce social loafing, teams should not be larger than necessary, and individuals should be held accountable for their actions.


Team Member Attributes

• Member Flexibility– The ability of team members to complete each

others’ tasks.

• Members’ Preference for Teamwork– Team members who would prefer to work on

their own threaten the team’s morale.


Creating Effective Teams – Work Design

• Effective teams need to work together and take collective responsibility to complete significant tasks. They must be more than a “team-in-name-only.”


Creating Effective Teams – Process

• Common Purpose

• Specific Goals

• Team Efficacy

• Managed Level of Conflict

• Accountability


Creating a Team Charter

• What are team members’ names and contact information (e.g., phone, email)?

• How will communication among team members take place (e.g., phone, email)?

• What will the team ground rules be (e.g., where and when to meet, attendance expectations, workload expectations)?

• How will decisions be made (e.g., consensus, majority vote, leader rules)?

• What potential conflicts may arise in the team? Among team members?

• How will conflicts be resolved by the group?


Increasing Socio-emotional Cohesiveness

• Keep the group relatively small.• Strive for a favourable public image to

increase the status and prestige of belonging.• Encourage interaction and cooperation.• Emphasize members’ common characteristics

and interests.• Point out environmental threats (e.g.,

competitors’ achievements) to rally the group.


Increasing Instrumental Cohesiveness

• Regularly update and clarify the group’s goal(s).• Give every group member a vital “piece of the

action.”• Channel each group member’s special talents toward

the common goal(s).• Recognize and equitably reinforce every member’s

contributions.• Frequently remind group members they need each

other to get the job done.


Exhibit 5-7 Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms,

and ProductivityCohesiveness

Low

HighHigh

productivityModerate

productivity

Lowproductivity

Moderate tolow productivity

Per

form

ance

No

rms

High Low


Virtual Teams

• Virtual Teams– Use computer technology to tie together

physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.


Managing Virtual Teams

• Establish regular times for group interaction.• Set up firm rules for communication.• Use visual forms of communication where possible.• Copy the good points of on-site teams. For example, allow time

for informal chitchat and socializing, and celebrate achievements.• Give and receive feedback and offer assistance on a regular basis.

Be persistent with people who are not communicating with you or each other.

• Agree on standard technology so all team members can work together easily.


Managing Virtual Teams

• Consider using 360-degree feedback to better understand and evaluate team members. This type of feedback comes from the full circle of daily contacts that an employee might have, including supervisors, peers, subordinates, and clients.

• Provide a virtual workspace via an intranet, website, or bulletin board.

• Note which employees effectively use email to build team rapport.• Smooth the way for the next assignment if membership on the

team, or the team itself, is not permanent.• Be available to employees, but don’t wait for them to seek you out.• Encourage informal, off-line conversation between team members.


Exhibit 5-8 An Illustration of Virtual Workspace

Source: Reprinted by permission of Shell Chemical LP.


Beware! Teams Aren’t Always the Answer

• Teams work best when the answer is yes:– Can the work be done better by more than one

person?

– Does work create a common purpose or set of goals for the people in the group that is more than the aggregate of individual goals?

– Are members of the group interdependent?


Summary and Implications• What are teams and groups?

– Groups are simply the sum of individual efforts. Teams generate positive synergy through coordinated efforts.

• Does everyone use teams? – Teams have become an essential part of the way business is

being done, with a large majority of companies now using them.

• Do groups and teams go through stages while they work?– Two different models were presented:

• The five stage model: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning

• The punctuated-equilibrium model: describes the pattern of development of specific to temporary groups with deadlines


Summary and Implications• How do we create effective teams?

– For teams to be effective, careful consideration must be given to resources, the team’s composition, work design, and process variables

• How do virtual teams work?– Virtual teams function much as face-to-face teams, but have

more challenges. Virtual team members need to communicate more about themselves at the start of projects.

• Are teams always the answer?– Ask

• Can the work be done better by more than one person?• Does the work create a common purpose or set of goals for the people

in the group that is more than the aggregate of individual goals?• Are the members of the group interdependent?


OB at Work


For Review

1. How can teams increase employee motivation?2. Describe the five-stage model of group

development.3. Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of

group development.4. What are the characteristics of an effective team?5. How can team members harm their team?


For Review

6. What is the difference between task-oriented roles and maintenance roles?

7. What are the effects of team size on performance?

8. How can a team minimize social loafing?

9. Contrast virtual and face-to-face teams.

10. What conditions favour creating a team, rather than letting an individual perform a given task?


For Critical Thinking

1. How could you use the punctuated-equilibrium model to better understand team behaviour?

2. Have you experienced social loafing as a team member? What did you do to prevent this problem?

3. Would you prefer to work alone or as part of a team? Why? How do you think your answer compares with that of others in your class?

4. What effect, if any, do you think workforce diversity has on a team’s performance and satisfaction?


Sports Teams as Models• Good Models

– Successful teams integratecooperation and competition.

– Successful teams score early wins.

– Successful teams avoid losing streaks.

– Practice makes perfect.– Successful teams use halftime

breaks.– Winning teams have a stable

membership.– Successful teams debrief after

failures and successes.

• Poor Models– All sport teams aren’t alike.– Work teams are more varied

and complex.– A lot of employees can’t

relate to sports metaphors.– Work team outcomes aren’t

easily defined in terms of wins and losses.


Breakout Group Exercises

• Form small groups to discuss the following topics.1. One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings

and does not turn drafts of assignments in on time. In general this group member is engaging in social loafing. What can the members of your group do to reduce social loafing?

2. Consider a team with which you’ve worked. Was there more emphasis on task-oriented or maintenance-oriented roles? What impact did this have on the group’s performance?

3. Identify 4 or 5 norms that a team could put into place near the beginning of its life that might help the team function better over time.


Paper Tower Exercise

• Step 1 (10 minutes): Each group will receive 20 index cards, 12 paper clips, and 2 marking pens (1 red, 1 green). Using these materials you will build a paper tower that will be judged on: height, stability, and beauty. Plan your construction. No building allowed during this step.

• Step 2 (15 minutes): Construct the tower. Be sure to put your group number somewhere on the tower.

• Step 3 (5 minutes): Towers will be delivered to the front of the room, where they will be judged by the class.


Paper Tower Questions• Step 4: In small groups, discuss the following questions:

a. What percent of the plan did each member of group contribute, on average?

b. Did your group have a leader? Why or why not?

c. How did the group respond to ideas during the planning stage?

d. To what extent did you follow the five-step model of group development?

e. List helpful behaviours. Explain.

f. List dysfunctional behaviours. Explain.Source: This exercise is based on The Paper Tower Exercise: Experiencing Leadership and Group Dynamics , by Phillip L. Hunsaker and Johanna S. Hunsaker, unpublished manuscript. A brief description is included in “Exchange,” The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 4, no. 2 (1979), p. 49. Reprinted by permission of the authors. The materials list was suggested by Professor Sally Maitlis, Sauder School of Business, University of British Columbia.


Conducting a Team Meeting• 12 steps to more efficient and effective meetings:

1. Prepare a meeting agenda.2. Distribute the agenda in advance.3. Consult with participants before the meeting.4. Get participants to go over the agenda.5. Establish specific time parameters.6. Maintain focused discussion.7. Encourage and support participation of all members.8. Maintain a balanced style.9. Encourage the clash of ideas.10. Discourage the clash of personalities.11. Be an effective listener.12. Bring proper closure.

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