chapter 6 - 8: skeletal system & joints (abbreviated)
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Chapter 6 - 8:Skeletal System
& Joints (Abbreviated)
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Bernard Siegfried Albinus 1697 – 1770
Famous for his drawings in the work entitled Tables of the Skeleton and Muscles
of the Human Body published in 1747.
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An example of Albinus’ drawings of the skeleton.
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Figure 6.1 The bones and cartilages of the human skeleton.
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
Hyaline cartilages
Elastic cartilages
Fibrocartilages
Cartilages
Bones of skeleton
EpiglottisLarynx
TracheaCricoidcartilage Lung
Respiratory tube cartilagesin neck and thorax
ThyroidcartilageCartilage in
external earCartilages innose
ArticularCartilageof a joint
Costalcartilage
Cartilage inIntervertebraldisc
Pubicsymphysis
Articular cartilageof a joint
Meniscus (padlikecartilage inknee joint)
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Figure 6.2 Classification of bones on the basis of shape.
(a) Long bone(humerus)
(b) Irregular bone(vertebra), rightlateral view
(d) Short bone(talus)
(c) Flat bone(sternum)
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Figure 6.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Proximal epiphysis
(a)
Epiphyseal line
Articularcartilage
Periosteum
Spongy bone
Compact boneMedullarycavity (linedby endosteum)
Diaphysis
Distal epiphysis
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(b)
Articularcartilage
Spongy bone
Compact bone
Figure 6.3b The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
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(c)
Yellowbone marrow
Endosteum
Compact bone
Periosteum
Perforating(Sharpey’s) fibers
Nutrientarteries
Figure 6.3c The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
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Figure 6.4 Comparison of different types of bone cells.
(a) Osteogenic cell (b) Osteoblast (c) Osteocyte
Stem cell Mature bone cellthat maintains the
bone matrix
Matrix-synthesizingcell responsiblefor bone growth
(d) Osteoclast
Bone-resorbing cell
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Figure 6.5 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone.
Compactbone
Trabeculae
Spongy bone(diploë)
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Figure 6.9 Endochondral ossification in a long bone.
1 2 3 4 5 Bone collarforms aroundhyaline cartilagemodel.
Cartilage in thecenter of thediaphysis calcifiesand then developscavities.
The periostealbud invades theinternal cavitiesand spongy bonebegins to form.
The diaphysis elongatesand a medullary cavityforms as ossificationcontinues. Secondaryossification centers appearin the epiphyses inpreparation for stage 5.
The epiphysesossify. Whencompleted, hyalinecartilage remains onlyin the epiphysealplates and articularcartilages.
Hyalinecartilage
Area ofdeterioratingcartilage matrix
Epiphysealblood vessel
Spongyboneformation
Epiphysealplatecartilage
Secondaryossificationcenter
Bloodvessel ofperiostealbud
Medullarycavity
Articularcartilage
Childhood toadolescence
BirthWeek 9 Month 3
Spongybone
Bonecollar Primaryossificationcenter
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Figure 6.12 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) control of blood calcium levels.
Osteoclastsdegrade bonematrix and release Ca2+
into blood.
Parathyroidglands
Thyroidgland
Parathyroidglands releaseparathyroidhormone (PTH).
StimulusFalling bloodCa2+ levels
PTH
Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 mlBALANCEBALANCE
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Figure 6.13 Bone anatomy and bending stress.
Load here (body weight)
Head offemur
Compressionhere
Point ofno stress
Tensionhere
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Figure 6.14 Vigorous exercise can lead to large increases in bone strength.
Cross-sectionaldimension of the humerusAddedbone matrixcounteractsadded stress
(b) Serving arm
(a)
Nonserving arm
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Steel “Bone Cages” used to lengthen legs. These were originally developed in the Soviet Union in the 1950s to treat dwarfism.
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Twelve-year-old boy with pituitary gigantism measuring 6'5" with his mother. Note the coarse facial features and prominent jaw.
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An example of untreated acromegaly.
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Exogenous induction of Acromegaly
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Another Example of exogenous use of GH
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Chelation Therapy – intravenous administration of chemicals designed to absorb toxic substances that have accumulated in the body. Most notably used for exposure to heavy metals such as lead or mercury.
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Figure 6.15 Stages in the healing of a bone fracture.
Hematoma Externalcallus
Bonycallus ofspongybone
Healedfracture
Newbloodvessels
Spongybonetrabecula
Internalcallus(fibroustissue andcartilage)
1 A hematoma forms. 2 Fibrocartilaginouscallus forms.
3 Bony callus forms. 4 Boneremodelingoccurs.
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Figure 6.16 The contrasting architecture of normal versus osteporotic bone.
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Figure 6.17 Fetal primary ossification centers at 12 weeks.
Parietal bone
Radius
Ulna
Humerus
Femur
Occipital bone
ClavicleScapula
Ribs
Vertebra
Ilium
Tibia
Frontal boneof skull
Mandible
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Figure 7.16 The vertebral column.
Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7
Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12
Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5
Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum
Coccyx4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view Right lateral view
Spinousprocess
Transverseprocesses
Intervertebraldiscs
Intervertebralforamen
C1
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Table 6.2 Common Types of Fractures (1 of 3)
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Table 6.2 Common Types of Fractures (2 of 3)
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Table 6.2 Common Types of Fractures (3 of 3)
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Figure 7.11 Detailed anatomy of the mandible and the maxilla.
CoronoidprocessMandibular foramen
Mental foramen
Mandibular angle
Ramus ofmandible
Mandibularcondyle
Mandibular notch
Mandibular fossaof temporal bone
Body of mandible
Alveolar margin
(a) Mandible, right lateral view
Temporomandibularjoint
Frontal process
Articulates withfrontal bone
Anterior nasalspine
Infraorbitalforamen
Alveolarmargin
(b) Maxilla, right lateral view(c) Maxilla, photo of right lateral view
Orbitalsurface
Zygomaticprocess(cut)
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Figure 7.15 Paranasal sinuses.
Frontalsinus
Ethmoidalair cells(sinus)
Maxillarysinus
Sphenoidsinus
Frontalsinus
Ethmoidalair cells
Maxillarysinus
Sphenoidsinus
(a) Anterior aspect (b) Medial aspect
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Figure 7.16 The vertebral column.
Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1–C7
Thoracic curvature(convex)12 vertebrae,T1–T12
Lumbar curvature(concave)5 vertebrae, L1–L5
Sacral curvature(convex)5 fused vertebrae sacrum
Coccyx4 fused vertebrae
Anterior view Right lateral view
Spinousprocess
Transverseprocesses
Intervertebraldiscs
Intervertebralforamen
C1
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Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (1 of 3)
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Table 7.2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae (3 of 3)
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i > Clicker Question #4
Looking at the image of this bone, which side of the body would you say this bone is from?
A) Right
B) Left
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i > Clicker Question #5
Looking at the image of this bone, which side of the body would you say this bone is from?
A) Right
B) Left
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Figure 7.33a Bones of the right foot.
Medialcuneiform
Phalanges
Metatarsals
TarsalsNavicular
Intermediatecuneiform
Talus
Calcaneus(a) Superior view
Cuboid
Lateralcuneiform
Proximal54321
Middle
Distal
Trochleaof talus
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Figure 7.34a Arches of the foot.
Medial longitudinalarch
Transverse arch
Laterallongitudinal arch
(a) Lateral aspect of right foot
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Figure 7.38 Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions.
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Sir John Charnley – doctor who pioneered the use of artificial
joints in the early 1960s.
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Fibrous Joints – joints that are created via fibrous connective tissues that are going to allow virtually no movement.
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Figure 8.1a Fibrous joints.
Densefibrousconnectivetissue
Sutureline
(a) Suture
Joint held together with very short,interconnecting fibers, and bone edges
interlock. Found only in the skull.
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Figure 8.1b Fibrous joints.
Fibula
Tibia
Ligament
(b) Syndesmosis
Joint held together by a ligament.Fibrous tissue can vary in length, but
is longer than in sutures.
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Figure 8.1c Fibrous joints.
Root oftooth
Socket ofalveolarprocess
Periodontalligament
(c) Gomphosis
“Peg in socket” fibrous joint. Periodontalligament holds tooth in socket.
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Cartilaginous Joints – joints that are created via cartilage these joints allow a small amount of movement.
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Figure 8.2a Cartilaginous joints.
Epiphysealplate (temporaryhyaline cartilagejoint)
Sternum(manubrium)
Joint betweenfirst rib andsternum(immovable)
(a) SynchondrosesBones united by hyaline cartilage
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Figure 8.2b Cartilaginous joints.
Fibrocartilaginousintervertebraldisc
Pubic symphysis
Body of vertebra
Hyaline cartilage
(b) SymphysesBones united by fibrocartilage
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Figure 8.3 General structure of a synovial joint.
Periosteum
Ligament
FibrouscapsuleSynovialmembrane
Joint cavity(containssynovial fluid)
Articular (hyaline)cartilage
Articularcapsule
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Figure 8.3
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Figure 8.4 Bursae and tendon sheaths.
Acromionof scapula
Joint cavitycontainingsynovial fluid
Synovialmembrane
Fibrouscapsule
Humerus
Hyalinecartilage
Coracoacromialligament
Subacromialbursa
Fibrousarticular capsule
Tendonsheath
Tendon oflong headof bicepsbrachii muscle
(a) Frontal section through the right shoulder joint
Coracoacromialligament
Subacromialbursa
Cavity inbursa containingsynovial fluid
Bursa rollsand lessensfriction.
Humerus headrolls medially asarm abducts.
(b) Enlargement of (a), showing how a bursa eliminates friction where a ligament (or other structure) would rub against a bone
Humerus resting
Humerus moving
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Figure 8.7a–c
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Figure 8.7d
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Figure 8.13a The temporomandibular (jaw) joint.
Zygomatic process
Mandibular fossaArticular tubercle
Infratemporal fossa
Externalacousticmeatus
ArticularcapsuleRamus ofmandible
Lateralligament
(a) Location of the joint in the skull
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Figure 8.13c The temporomandibular (jaw) joint.
(c) Lateral excursion: lateral (side-to-side) movements of the mandible
Outline ofthe mandibularfossa
Superior view
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Figure 8.15 X ray of a hand deformed by rheumatoid arthritis.