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Chapter6:BasicMotivationConcepts

WhatisMotivation?

Motivation=Theprocessesthataccountforanindividualsintensity,direction,andpersistenceofefforttowardachievingagoal

Intensity=howhardanemployeetriesDirection=shouldbenefittheorganization(i.e.qualityofeffortcounts!)Persistence=howlongcananemployeemaintainhis/hereffort?Note:thegoalisanorganizationalgoal

SomeKeyPoints:Motivationisnotdirectlyobservable(itisinternaltoeachemployee),itispersonal(whatisarousingdiffersandhowbehaviorisdirectedisoftendifferent),howevertheprocessiscommonanditisgoaldirected.

EarlyTheoriesofMotivation

HierarchyofNeeds(a.k.a.Maslow'sPyramid)

Physiologicalincludeshunger,thirst,shelter,sexandotherbodilyneedsSafetyincludessecurityandprotectionfromphysicalandemotionalharmSocialincludesaffection,belongingnessacceptance,andfriendshipEsteemincludesinternalesteemfactorssuchasselfrespect,autonomy,andachievementandexternalesteemfactorssuchasstatus,recognition,andattentionSelfactualizationthedrivetobecomewhatoneiscapableofbecomingincludesgrowth,achievingonespotential,andselffulfillment

Note:Anindividualmovesupthestepsofthehierarchy.Lowerorderneedsaresatisfiedexternally(i.e.physiologicalandsafety)whilehigherorderneedsaresatisfiedinternally(i.e.social,esteem,andselfactualization).

TheoryXandTheoryY

DouglasMcGregorproposedtwodistinctviewsofhumanbeings:onebasicallynegative,labeledTheoryX,andtheotherbasicallypositive,labeledTheoryY.TheoryX

Theassumptionthatemployeesdislikework,arelazy,dislikeresponsibility,andmustbecoercedtoperform.(Lowerorderneedsdominate)

TheoryY

Theassumptionthatemployeeslikework,arecreative,seekresponsibility,andcanexerciseselfdirection.(Higherorderneedsdominate)

McGregorbelievedTheoryYassumptionsweremorevalidthanTheoryXandproposedsuchideasasparticipativedecisionmaking,responsibleandchallengingjobs,andgoodgroup

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relationsasapproachesthatwouldmaximizeanemployee'smotivation.

**Question=whattypeofmanagerwillyoube(orareyou)?OnewhobelievesinTheoryXorTheoryY?Behonest!Doyouthinkthisisimportant?Why?Whynot?

TwoFactorTheory

Intrinsicfactorsarerelatedtojobsatisfaction,whileextrinsicfactorsarerelatedtojobdissatisfaction.

Hygienefactors=whentheseareadequate,workersfeelOK(i.e.theyareNOTdissatisfied).Examplesincludequalityofsupervision,companypoliciesandadministration.

Motivators=examinesfactorscontributingtojobsatisfaction.Thustherearefactorswhichleadtojobsatisfactionandthingsthatdont(i.e.noticethereisadifferencebetweennonsatisfyinganddissatisfyingfactors)

ContemporaryTheories

McClelland'sTheoryofNeeds

TheNeedforAchievement:thedrivetoexcel,achieveinrelationtoasetofstandards,strivetosucceed.

TheNeedforPower:Theneedtomakeothersbehaveinawaythattheywouldnothavebehavedotherwise.

TheNeedforAffiliation:Thedesireforfriendlyandcloseinterpersonalrelationships.

Question:Whatcanwedowiththisinformation?Answer:Matchpeopletojobs!

Thosehighon"achievement"tendtopreferjobswithpersonalresponsibility,feedbackandmoderaterisks.TheyDONOTalwayscareaboutmotivatingothers!

Ingeneral,individualshighontheneedfor"Power"andlowontheneedfor"Affiliation"tendtoperformbetterinmanagerialroles.

CognitiveEvaluationTheory

Allocatingextrinsicrewardsforbehaviorthathadbeenpreviouslyintrinsicallyrewardingtendstodecreasetheoveralllevelofmotivation.GoalSettingTheory

Thetheorythatspecificanddifficultgoalsleadtohigherperformance.Goalstellanemployeewhatneedstobedoneandhowmucheffortwillneedtobeexpended.Specificgoalsincreaseperformancethatdifficultgoals,whenaccepted,resultinhigherperformancethandoeasygoalsandthatfeedbackleadstohigherperformancethandoesnonfeedback.Specifichardgoalsproduceahigherlevelofoutputthandoesthegeneralizedgoalof"do

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yourbest."Thespecificityofthegoalitselfactsasaninternalstimulus.

Besuretonotetheimportanceofgoalcommitment,selfefficacy,taskcharacteristics,andnationalcultureongoalsettingtheory.

ManagementbyObjectives("MBO")Thisapproachputsgoalsettingtowork.Itisaprogramthatencompasses:

specificgoals(tangible,verifiable,measurable)participativelysetforanexplicittimeperiodwithperformancefeedbackongoalprogress

MBOoperationalizestheconceptofobjectivesbydevisingaprocessbywhichobjectivescascadedownthroughtheorganization.Theresultisahierarchyofobjectivesthatlinksobjectivesatoneleveltothoseatthenextlevel.Fortheindividualemployee,MBOprovidesspecificpersonalperformanceobjectives.

SelfEfficacyTheory

Selfefficacyreferstoanindividual'sbeliefthatheorsheiscapableofperformingatask.Thehigheryourselfefficacy,themoreconfidenceyouhaveinyourabilitytosucceedinatask.

ReinforcementTheory

Acounterpointtothegoalsettingtheory.Inreinforcementtheory,abehavioristicapproach,whicharguesthatreinforcementconditionsbehavior.Reinforcementtheoristsseebehaviorasbeingbehaviorallycaused.Reinforcementtheoryignorestheinnerstateoftheindividualandconcentratessolelyonwhathappenstoapersonwhenheorshetakessomeaction.Becauseitdoesnotconcernitselfwithwhatinitiatesbehavior,itisnot,strictlyspeaking,atheoryofmotivation.

Itdoeshoweverprovideapowerfulmeansofanalysisofwhatcontrolsbehavior.EquityTheory

Individualscomparetheirjobinputsandoutcomeswiththoseofothersandthenrespondsoastoeliminateanyinequities.Equitytheoryrecognizesthatindividualsareconcernednotonlywiththeabsoluteamountofrewardsfortheirefforts,butalsowiththerelationshipofthisamounttowhatothersreceive.Historically,equitytheoryfocusedon:

distributivejusticeortheperceivedfairnessoftheamountandallocationofrewardsamongindividuals.However,equityshouldalsoconsiderproceduraljusticeortheperceivedfairnessoftheprocessusedtodeterminethedistributionofrewards.Interactionaljusticeisalsoimportant.

*Question:So,whathappenswhenyourpayisinequitable?

ExpectancyTheory

Thestrengthofatendencytoactinacertainwaydependsonthestrengthofan

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expectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandontheattractivenessofthatoutcometotheindividual.Thetheoryfocusesonthreerelationships:Effortperformancerelationshiportheprobabilityperceivedbytheindividualthatexertingagivenamountofeffortwillleadtoperformance.Performancerewardrelationshiporthedegreetowhichtheindividualbelievesthatperformingataparticularlevelwillleadtotheattainmentofadesiredoutcome.Rewardspersonalgoalsrelationshiporthedegreetowhichorganizationalrewardssatisfyanindividualspersonalgoalsorneedsandtheattractivenessofthosepotentialrewardsfortheindividual.

DontForgetAbilityandOpportunityPerformance=f(AbilityXMotivationXOpportunity)Question:Thinkabouthowthefundamentalattributionerrorcanleadyouastrayintermsofunderstandingothersbehaviorintheworkplace.Howdoability,motivation,andopportunityinfluenceYOURperceptionsofworkplacebehavior?)

IntegratingContemporaryTheoriesofMotivationFirst,consideremployeesopportunity,abilityandthepurposeorobjectivesofthecurrentperformanceevaluationsysteminwhichtheywork.Then,considerthelinkbetweenindividualeffortindividualperformanceorganizationalrewardsandpersonalgoals.Eachlinkcanbeinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors(i.e.needs,reinforcement,equity)MotivationTheoriesareCultureBoundNotethatmosttheoriesweredevelopedintheUS.Manytheoriesdonotalwaysworkaroundtheworld(e.g.,equitytheory).However,manydo(e.g.,havinginterestingwork).SummaryandImplicationsforManagers

NeedTheoriesMaslowshierarchy,Twofactor,ERG,&McClellandsGoalSettingTheoryClearanddifficultgoalsoftenleadtohigherlevelsofemployeeproductivity.ReinforcementTheoryGoodpredictorofqualityandquantityofwork,persistenceofeffort,absenteeism,

tardiness,andaccidentrates.EquityTheoryStrongestwhenpredictingabsenceandturnoverbehaviors.Weakestwhenpredictingdifferencesinemployeeproductivity.ExpectancyTheory

FocusonperformancevariablesItisarationalmodelsobecarefulwhenusingitThistheorymaybebetterappliedtoemployeeswithgreaterdiscretionintheirjobs(i.e.,asopposedtosemiskilledpositions)