chapter 6 onsite treatment methods 1. septic tanks 2 ...onsite.tennessee.edu/epa decentralized...

CHAPTER 6

ONSITE TREATMENT METHODS

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents information on the component of an onsite system that provides "treatment" of the wastewater, as opposed to its "disposal ' (disposal options for treated wastewater are covered in Chapter 7). Treatment options included in this discussion are:

1. Septic tanks 2. Intermittent sand filters 3. Aerobic treatment units 4. Disinfection units 5. Nutrient removal systems 6. Wastewater segregation and recycle systems

Detailed design, O&M, performance, and construction data are provided for the first four components above. A more general description of nutrient removal is provided as these systems are not yet in general use, and often involve in-house changes in product use and plumbing. A brief mention of wastewater segregation and recycle options is included, since these also function as treatment options.

Options providing a combined treatment/disposal function, i.e., soil absorption systems, are discussed in Chapter 7.

6.1.1 Purpose

The purpose of the treatment component is to transform the raw household wastewater into an effluent suited to the disposal component, such that the wastewater can be disposed of in conformance with public health and environmental regulations. For example, in a subsurface soil absorption system, the pretreatment unit (e.g., septic tank) should remove nearly all settleable solids and floatable grease and scum so that a reasonably clear liquid is discharged into the soil absorption field. This allows the field to operate more efficiently. Likewise, for a surface discharge system, the treatment unit should produce an effluent that will meet applicable surface discharge standards.

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Aeration Tank

Aeration System Diffused air

Mechanical

Clarifier

Trash Trap

Controls

Sludge Wasting

Analytical

TABLE 6-15

SUGGESTED MAINTENANCE FOR ONSITE EXTENDED AERATION PACKAGE PLANTSa

Suggested Maintenance

Check for foaming and uneven air distribution.

Check air filters, seals, oil level, back pressure; perform manufacturer's required maintenance.

Check for vibration and overheating; check oil level, seals; perform manufacturer's required maintenance.

Check for floating scum; check effluent appearance; clean weirs; hose down sidewalls and appurtenance; check sludge return flow rate and adjust time sequence if required; locate sludge blanket; service mechanical equipment as required by manufacturer.

Check for accumualted solids; hose down sidewalls.

Check out functions of all controls and alarms; check electrical control box.

Pump waste solids as required.

Measure aeration tank grab sample for DO, MLSS, pH, settleability, temperature; measure final effluent composite sample for BOD, SS, pH (N and P if required).

a Maintenance activities should be performed about once per month.

153

TABLE 6-13

Parameter

SUMMARY OF EFFLUENT DATA FROM VARIOUS AEROBIC UNIT FIELD STUDIES

Source Ref. (2) Ref. (30) Ref. (31) Ref. (32) Ref. (331 Ref. (34) Ref. (35)

BODg Mean, mg/l 37 37 ,,“I,0 92 144 36 Range, w/J d-208 l-235 lo-824

920 3-170

No. of Samples 112 167 86 146 393 10 124

Suspended Solids

Mean, mg/l Range, mg/l No. of Samples

3-%2 62 94 94 122 49 l-510 18-692 li6

17-768 5-164 4”,‘66 117 167 74 251 10 132

phosphorus are normally less than 25%. The removal of indicator bacteria in onsite extended aeration processes is highly variable and not well documented. Reported values of fecal coliforms appear to be about 2 orders of magnitude lower in extended aeration effluents than in septic tank effluents (2).

6.4.2.4 Design

A discussion of some of the important features of onsite extended aeration package plants in light of current operational experience is presented below.

a. Configuration

Most extended aeration package plants designed for individual home application range in capacity from 600 to 1,500 gal (2,270 to 5,680 11, which includes the aeration compartment, settling chamber, and in some units, a pretreatment compartment. Based upon average flows from house- holds, this volume will provide total hydraulic retention times of several days.

b. Pretreatment

Some aerobic units provide a pretreatment step to remove gross solids (grease, trash, garbage grindings, etc.). Pretreatment devices include trash traps, septic tanks, comminutors, and aerated surge chambers. The use of a trash trap or septic tank preceding the extended aeration process reduces problems with floating debris in the final clarifier, clogging of flow lines, and plugging of pumps.

c. Flow Mode

Aerobic package plants may be designed as continuous flow or batch flow systems. The simplest continuous flow units provide no flow equaliza- tion and depend upon aeration tank volume and/or baffles to reduce the impact of hydraulic surges. Some units employ more sophisticated flow dampening devices, including air lift or float-controlled mechanical pumps to transfer the wastewater from aeration tank to clarifier. Still other units provide multiple-chambered tanks to attenuate flow. The batch (fill and draw) flow system eliminates the problem of hydraulic variation. This unit collects and treats the wastewater over a period of time (usually one day), then discharges the settled effluent by pumping at the end of the cycle.

147

d. Method of Aeration

Oxygen is transferred to the mixed liquor by means of diffused air, sparged turbine, or surface entrainment devices. When diffused air systems are employed, low head blowers or compressors are used to force the air through the diffusers placed on the bottom of the tank. The sparged turbine employs both a diffused air source and external mixing, usually by means of a submerged flat-bladed turbine. The sparged turbine is more complex than the simple diffused air system. There are a variety of mechanical aeration devices employed in package plants to aerate and mix the wastewater. Air is entrained and circulated within the mixed liquor through violent agitation from mixing or pumping action.

Oxygen transfer efficiencies for these small package plants are normally low (0.2 to 1.0 lb 0 /hp hr) (3.4 to 16.9 kg 02/MJ) as compared with large-scale systems ii ue primarily to the high power inputs to the smaller units (constrained by minimm motor sizes for these relatively small aeration tanks) (2). Normally, there is sufficient oxygen transferred to produce high oxygen levels. In an attempt to reduce power requirements or to enhance nitrogen removal, some units employ cycled aeration periods. Care must be taken to avoid the development of poor settling biomass when cycled aeration is used.

Mixing of the aeration tank contents is also an important consideration in the design of oxygen transfer devices. for mixing i3

Rule of thumb reqvrements aeration tanks range from 0.5 to 1 hp/l,OOO ft (13 to

26 kw/l,OOO m ) depending upon reactor geometry. Commercially available package units Q re reported to deliver mixing inputs rangCng from 0.2 to 3 hp/l,OOO ft (5 to 79 kw/l,OOO m3) (2). Deposition problems may develop in those units with the lower mixing intensities.

e. Biomass Separation

The clarifier is critical to the successful performance of the extended aeration process. A majority of the commercially available package plants provide simple gravity separation. Weir and baffle designs have not been given much attention in package units. Weir lengths Qjf at least 12 in. (30 cm) are preferred (10,000 gpd/ft at 7 gpm) (127 m /d/m at 0.4 l/set) and sludge deflection baffles should be included as a part of the outlet design. The use of gas deflection barriers is a simple way to keep floating solids away from the weir area.

Upflow clarifier devices have also been employed to improve separation.' Hydraulic surges must be avoided in these systems. Filtration devices

148

have also been employed in some units. While filters may produce high- quality effluent, they are very susceptible to both internal and external clogging. The behavior of clarifiers is dependent upon biomass settling properties, solids loading rate, and hydraulic overflow ra es. D5sign2peak hydraulic overflow rates should be less than 800 gpd ft 5 (32 m /d/m 1; $nd at averag flo design values normally range from 200 to 400 gpd/ft (J to 16 m'/d,$rn'l Solids loading than $0 lb/ft /d ($45 kg/m /dl'based upon

rates are usually less average flow and less than 50

lb/ft /d (242 kg/m /d) based upon peak flows.

f. Biomass Return

Once separated from the treated wastewater, the biomass must be returned to the aeration tank or be wasted. Air lift pumps, draft tubes working off the aerator, and gravity return methods are normally used. Batch units and plants that employ filters do not require sludge return. Rapid removal of solids from the clarifier is desirable to avoid denitrification and subsequent floatation of solids. Positive sludge return should be employed in package plants since the use of gravity return systems has generally proved ineffective (2)(20).

Removal of floating solids from clarifiers has normally been ignored in most onsite package plant designs. Since this material results in serious deterioration of the effluent, efforts should be made to provide for positive removal of this residue. Reliance on the owner to remove floating scum is unrealistic.

!I* Biomass Wasting

Most onsite package plants do not provide for routine wasting of solids from the unit. Some systems, however, do employ an additional chamber for aerobic digestion of wasted sludge. Wasting is normally a manual operation whereby the operator checks mixed liquor solids and wasted sludge when mixed liquor concentrations exceed a selected value. In general, wasting should be provided once every 8 to 12 months (2)(35).

h. Controls and Alarms

Most aerobic units are supplied with some type of alarm and control system to detect mechanical breakdown and to control the operation of electrical components. They do not normally include devices to detect effluent quality or biomass deterioration. Since the control systems

149

contain electrical components, they are subject to corrosion. All electrical components should be waterproofed and regularly serviced to ensure their continued operation.

6.4.2.5 Additional Construction Features

Typical onsite extended aeration package plants are constructed of noncorrosive materials, including reinforced plastics and fiberglass, coated steel, and reinforced concrete. The unit may be buried provided that there is easy access to all mechanical parts and electrical control systems, as well as appurtenances requiring maintenance such as weirs, air lift pump lines, etc. Units may also be installed above ground, but should be properly housed to protect against severe climatic conditions. Installation of the units should be in accordance with specifications of the manufacturers.

Appurtenances for the plant should be constructed of corrosion-free materials including polyethylene plastics. Air diffuser support legs are normally constructed from galvanized iron or equivalent. Large-diameter air lift units should be employed to avoid clogging problems. Mechanical units should be properly waterproofed and/or housed from the elements.

Since blowers, pumps, and other prime movers are abused by severe environment, receive little attention, and are often subject to continuous operation, they should be designed for heavy duty use. They should be easily accessible for routine maintenance and tied into an effective alarm system.

6.4.2.6 Operation and Maintenance

a. General Plant Operation

Typical operating parameters for onsite extended aeration systems are presented in Table 6-14. The activated sludge process can be operated by controlling only a few parameters - the aeration tank dissolved oxygen, the return sludge rate, and the sludge wasting rate. For onsite package plants, these control techniques are normally fixed by mechanical limitations so that very little operational control is required. Dissolved oxygen is normally high and cannot be practically controlled except by "on or off" operation. Experimentation with the process may dictate a desirable cycling arrangement employing a simple time clock

150

TABLE 6-14

TYPICAL OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR ONSITE EXTENDED AERATION SYSTEMS

Parametera Average Maximum

MLSS, mg/l

F/M, lb BOD/d/lb MLSS

Solids Retention Time, days

Hydraulic Retention Time, days

Dissolved Oxygen, mg/l

Mixing, hp/l,OOO ft3

Clarifier Overflow Rate, gpd/ft2

Clarifier Solids Loading, lb/d/ftz

Clarifier Weir Loading, gpd/ftz

Sludge Wasting, months

2,000-6,000 8,000

0.05 - 0.1

20-100

2-5

>2.0

0.5-1.0

200-400 800

20-30 50

10,000-30,000 30,000

8-12

a Pretreatment: Trash trap or septic tank. Sludge Return and Scum Removal: Positive.

151

control that results in power savings and may also achieve some nitrogen removal (Section 6.6).

The return sludge rate is normally fixed by pumping capacity and pipe arrangements. Return sludge pumping rates often range from 50 to 200% of forward flow. They should be high enough to reduce sludge retention times in the clarifier to a minimum (less than 1 hr), yet low enough to discourage pumping of excessive amounts of water with the sludge. Time clock controls may be used to regulate return pumping.

Sludge wasting is manually accomplished in most package plants. Through experience, the operator knows when mixed liquor solids concentrations become excessive, resulting in excessive clarifier loading. Usually 8- to 12-month intervals between wasting is satisfactory, but this varies with plant design and wastewater characteristic. Wasting is normally accomplished by pumping mixed liquor directly from the aeration tank. Wasting of approximately 75% of the aeration tank volume is usually satisfactory. Wasted sludge must be handled properly (see Chapter 9).

b. Start-Up

Prior to actual start-up, a dry checkout should be performed to insure proper installation. Seeding of the plant with bacterial cultures is not required as they will develop within a 6- to 12-week period. Ini- tially, large amounts of white foam may develop, but will subside as mixed liquor solids increase. During start-up, it is advisable to return sludge at a high rate. Intensive surveillance. by qualified maintenance personnel is desirable during the first month of start-up.

c. Routine Operation and Maintenance

Table 6-15 itemizes suggested routine maintenance performance for onsite extended aeration package plants. The process is labor-intensive and requires semi-skilled personnel. Based upon field experience with these units, 12 to 48 man-hr per yr plus analytical services are required to insure reasonable performance. Power requirements are variable, but range between 2.5 to 10 kWh/day.

d. Operational Problems

Table 6-16 outlines an abbreviated listing of operational problems and suggested remedies for them. A detailed discussion of these problems

152

TABLE 6-16

OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS--EXTENDED AERATION

Observation

Excessive local turbulence in aeration tank

White thick billowy foam on aeration tank

Thick scummy dark tan foam on aeration tank

Dark brown/black foam and mixed liquor in aeration tank

Billowing sludge washout in clarifier

Clumps of rising sludge in clarifier

Fine dispersed floe over weir, turbid effluent

Cause

Diffuser plugging Pipe breakage Excessive aeration

Insufficient MLSS

High MLSS

Anaerobic conditions Aerator failure

Hydraulic or solids overload

Bulking sludge

Denitrification

Septic conditions in clarifier

Turbulence in aeration tank

Sludge age too high

PACKAGE PLANTS

Remedv

Remove and clean Replace as required Throttle blower

Avoid wasting solids

Waste solids

Check aeration system, aeration tank D.O.

Waste sludge; check flow to unit

See reference (37)

Increase sludge return rate to decrease sludge retention time in clarifier

Increase return rate

Reduce power input

Waste sludge

154

for larger, centralized systems can be found in the "Manual of Practice - Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants" (36) and "Process Control Manual for Aerobic Biological Wastewater Treatment Facilities" (37). Major mechanical maintenance problems for onsite treatment units are with blower or mechanical aerator failure, pump and pipe clogging, electrical motor failure, corrosion and/or failure of controls, and electrical malfunctions (35). Careful attention to a maintenance schedule will reduce these problems to a minimum, and will also alleviate operational problems due to the biological process upset. Emphasis should be placed on adequate maintenance checks during the first 2 or 3 months of operation.

6.4.2.7 Considerations for Multi-Home Application

The extended aeration process may be well suited for multiple-home or commercial applications. The same requirements listed for single onsite systems generally apply to the larger scale systems (20)(36)(37)(38). However, larger package plant systems may be more complex and require a greater degree of operator attention.

6.4.3 Fixed Film Systems

6.4.3.1 Description

Fixed film systems employ an inert media to which microorganisms may become attached. The wastewater comes in contact with this fixed film of microorganisms either by pumping the water past the media or by moving the media past the wastewater to be treated. Oxygen may be supplied by natural ventilation or by mechanical or diffused aeration within the wastewater. Fixed film reactors are normally constructed as packed towers or as rotating plates. Figure 6-12 depicts three types of onsite fixed film systems - the trickling filter (gravity flow of wastewater downward), the upflow filter (wastewater pumped upward through the media), and the rotating biological contractor.

The trickling filter has been used to treat wastewater for many years. Modern filters today consist of towers of media constructed from a variety of plastics, stone, or redwood laths into a number of shapes (honey- comb blocks, rings, cylinders, etc.). Wastewater is distributed over the surface of the media and collected at the bottom through an undrain system. Oxygen is normally transferred by natural drafting, although some units employ blowers. Treated effluent is settled prior to being discharged or partially recycled back through the filter.

155

FIGURE 6-12

EXAMPLES OF FIXED FILM PACKAGE PLANT CONFIGURATIONS

ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR

UPFLOW FILTER

TRICKLING FILTFR

lnfluent,Distributor

Efflu ent II

lent

Pump I

V Septic 2 Tank

;;:,=$ip -Effluent to Clarifier or Septic Tank I 4

156

In an upflow filter, wastewater flows through the media and is subsequently collected at an overflow weir. Oxygen may be transferred to the biomass by means of diffusers located at the bottom of the tower or by surface entrainment devices at the top. One of the commercially available units of this type (built primarily for shipboard use) does not require effluent sedimentation prior to discharge (Figure 6-12). Circulation of wastewater through this particular unit promotes the shear of biomass from the media and subsequent carriage to the tank bottom.

The rotating biological contactor (RBC) employs a series of rotating discs mounted on a horizontal shaft. The partially submerged discs rotate at rates of 1 to 2 rpm through the wastewater. Oxygen is transferred to the biomass as the disc rotates from the air to the water phase. Recirculation of effluent is not normally practiced.

6.4.3.2 Applicability

There has been little long-term field experience with onsite fixed film systems. Generally, they are less complex than extended aeration systems and should require less attention; if designed properly they should produce an effluent of equivalent quality.

There are no significant physical site constraints that should limit their application, although local codes may require certain set-back distances. The process is more temperature sensitive than extended aeration and should be insulated as required. Rotating biological contactors should also be protected from sunlight to avoid excessive growth of algae which may overgrow the plate surfaces.

6.4.3.3 Factors Affecting Performance

Limited data are currently available on long-term performance of onsite fixed film systems. Detailed description of process variables that affect fixed film process perfomrance appear in the "Manual of Practice for Wastewater Treatment Plant Design" (20). Low loaded filters should also achieve substantial nitrification, as well as good BOD and SS reductions.

6.4.3.4 Design

Onsite fixed film systems include a variety of proprietary devices. Design guidelines are, therefore, difficult to prescribe. Table 6-17

157

presents suggested design ranges for two generic fixed film systems, the RBC and the fixed media processes.

TABLE 6-17

TYPICAL OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR ONSITE FIXED FILM SYSTEMS

Parametera Fixed Media RBC

Hydraulic Loading, gpd/ft2 25-100 0.75-1.0

Organic Loading, lb BOD/d/lOOO ft8 5-20 1.0-1.5

Dissolved Oxygen, mg/l >2.0 >2.0

Overflow Rate, gpd/ft2 600-800 600-800

Weir Loading, gpd/ft2 10,000-20,000 10,000-20,000

Sludge Wasting, months 8-12 8-12

a Pretreatment: Settling or screening. Recirculation: Not required.

All fixed film systems should be preceded by settling and/or screening to remove materials that will otherwise cause process malfunction. Hydraulic loadings are normally constrained by biological reaction rates and mass transfer.

Organic loading is primarily dictated by oxygen transfer within the biological film. Excessive organic loads may cause anaerobic conditions resulting in odor and poor performance. Dissolved oxygen in the liquid should be at least 2 mg/l. Recirculation is not normally practiced in package fixed film systems since it adds to the degree of complexity and is energy and maintenance intensive. However, recirculation may be desirable in certain applications where minimum wetting rates are required for optimal performance.

The production of biomass on fixed film systems is similar to that for extended aeration. Very often, accumulated sludge is directed back to the septic tank for storage and partial digestion.

158

6.4.3.5 Construction Features

Very few commercially produced fixed film systems are currently available for onsite application. Figure 6-12 illustrates several flow arrangements that have been employed. Specific construction details are dependent on system characteristics. In general, synthetic packing or attachment media are preferred over naturally occurring materials because they are lighter, more durable, and provide better void volume - surface area characteristics. All fixed film systems should be covered and insulated as required against severe weather. Units may be installed at or below grade depending upon site topography and other adja- cent treatment processes. Access to all moving parts and controls is required, and proper venting of the unit is paramount, especially if natural ventilation is being used to supply oxygen. Underdrains, where required, should be accessible and designed to provide sufficient air space during maximum hydraulic loads. Clarification equipment should include positive sludge and scum handling. All pumps, blowers, and aeration devices, if required, should be rugged, corrosion-resistant, and built for continuous duty.


a. General Process Operation

Fixed film systems for onsite application normally require very minimal operation. Rotating biological contactors are installed at fixed rota- tional speed and submergence. Flow to these units is normally fixed through the use of an integrated pumping system. Sludge wasting is normally controlled by a timer setting. Through experience, the operator may determine when clarifier sludge should be discharged in order to avoid sludge flotation (denitrification) or excessive build-up.

Where aeration is provided, it is normally designed for continuous duty. On-off cycling of aeration equipment may be practiced for energy conservation if shown not to cause a deterioration of effluent quality.

b. Routine Operation and Maintenance

Table 6-18 itemizes suggested routine maintenance performance for onsite fixed film systems. The process is less labor-intensive than extended aeration systems and requires semi-skilled personnel. Based upon very limited field experience with these units, 8 to 12 man-hr per yr plus

159

TABLE 6-18

Item

Media Tank

Aeration System

RBC Unit

Clarifier

Trash Trap

Controls

Analytical

SUGGESTED MAINTENANCE FOR ONSITE FIXED FILM PACKAGE PLANTSa

Suggested Maintenance

Check media for debris accumulation, ponding, and excessive biomass - clean as required; check underdrains - clean as required; hose down sidewalls and appurtenances; check effluent distribution and pumping - clean as required.

See Table 6-15

Lubricate motors and bearings; replace seals as required by manufacturer.

See Table 6-15

See Table 6-15

See Table 6-15

Measure final effluent composite sample for BOD, SS, pH (N and P if required).

a Maintenance activities should be performed about once per month.

160

analytical services are required to ensure adequate performance. Power requirements depend upon the device employed, but may range from 1 to 4 kWh/day.

c. Operational Problems

Table 6-19 outlines an abbreviated list of potential operational problems and suggested remedies for onsite fixed film systems. A detailed discussion of these may be found in the "Manual of Practice - Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants" (36) and "Process Control Manual for Aerobic Biological Wastewater Treatment Facilities" (37).

6.4.3.7 Considerations for Multi-Home Applications

Fixed film systems may be well suited for multiple-home or commercial applications. The same requirements for single-home onsite systems apply to the large-scale systems (20)(29)(37)(38). However, larger systems may be more complex and require a greater degree of operator attention.

6.5 Disinfection

6.5.1 Introduction

Disinfection of wastewaters is employed to destroy pathogenic organisms in the wastewater stream. Since disposal of wastewater to surface water may result in potential contacts between individuals and the wastewater, disinfection processes to reduce the risk of infection should be considered.

There are a number of important waterborne pathogens found in the United States (39)(40)(41)(42). Within this group of pathogens, the protozoan cyst is generally most resistant to disinfection processes, followed by the virus and, the vegetative bacteria (43). The design of the disinfection process must necessarily provide effective control of the most resistant pathogen likely to be present in the wastewater treated. Up- stream processes may effectively reduce some of these pathogens, but data are scant on the magnitude of this reduction for most pathogens. Currently, the effectiveness of disinfection is measured by the use of indicator bacteria (total or fecal coliform) or disinfectant residual where applicable. Unfortunately, neither method guarantees complete destruction of the pathogen, and conservative values are often selected to hedge against this risk.

161

TABLE 6-19

OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS--FIXED FILM PACKAGE PLANTS

Observation

Filter Ponding

Filter Flies

Odors

Freezing

Excessive Biomass Accumulation

Poor Clarification

Cause

Media too fine

Organic overload

Debris

Poor wastewater distribution

Poor ventilation/ aeration

Improper insultation

Organic overload

Low pH; anaerobic conditions

Denitrification in clarifier

Hydraulic o.verload

Remedy

Replace media

Flush surface with high pressure stream; increase recycle rate; dose with chlorine (lo-20 mg/l for 4 hours)

Remove debris; provide pretreatment

Provide complete wetting of media; increase recycle rate; chlorinate (5 mg/l for 6 hours at 1 to 2 week intervals)

Check underdrains; maintain aeration equipment, if employed; insure adequate ventilation; increase recycle

Check and provide sufficient insulation

Increase recycle; flush surface with high pressure stream; dose with chlorine; increase surface area (RBC)

Check venting; preaerate wastewater

Remove sludge more often

Reduce recycle; provide flow buffering

162

Table 6-20 presents a listing of potential disinfectants for onsite application. Selection of the best disinfectant is dependent upon the characteristics of the disinfectant, the characteristics of the wastewater and the treatment processes preceding disinfection. The most important disinfectants for onsite application are chlorine, iodine, ozone, and ultraviolet light, since more is known about these disinfectants and equipment is available for their application.

TABLE 6-20

SELECTED POTENTIAL DISINFECTANTS FOR ONSITE APPLICATION

Disinfectant

Sodium Hypochlorite

Calcium Hypochlorite

Elemental Iodine

Ozone

Ultraviolet Light

Formula Form Used Equipment

NaOCl Liquid

Ca(OC112 Tablet

12 Crystals

03 Gas

Electromagnetic Radiation

Metering Pump

Tablet Contactor

Crystal/Liquid Contactor

Generator, Gas/ Liquid Contactor

Thin Film Radiation Contactor

Disinfection processes for onsite disposal must necessarily be simple and safe to operate, reliable, and economical. They normally are the terminal process in the treatment flow sheet.

6.5.2 The Halogens - Chlorine and Iodine

6.5.2.1 Description

Chlorine and iodine are powerful oxidizing agents capable of oxidizing organic matter, including organisms, at rapid rates in relatively low concentrations. Some of the characteristics of these halogens appear in Table 6-21 (20)(441(45).

163

TABLE.6-21

HALOGEN PROPERTIES (27)

Commercial Strength Specific

Available Halogen Form % Handling

Gravity Materials

Sodium Liquid 12 - 15 1.14 - 1.17 Hypochlorite

Ceramic, Glass, Plastic, Rubber

Calcium Tablet 70 Glass, Wood, Hypochlorite (115 gm) Fiberglass,

Rubber

Iodine Crystals 100 4.93 Fiberglass, Some Plastics

Characteristics

Deteriorates rapidly at high temperatures, in sunlight, and at high concentrations.

Deteriorates at 3-%/year

Stable in water; solubility:

10' - 200 mg/l 20” - 290 mg/l 30” - 400 mp/l

Chlorine may be added to wastewater as a gas, Cl . However, because the gas can represent a safety hazard and is hig ly corrosive, chlorine 8 would normally be administered as a solid or liquid for onsite applications. Addition of either sodium or calcium hypochlorite to wastewater results in an increase in pH and produces the chlorine compounds hypochlorous acid, HOCl, and hypochlorite ion, OCl', which are designated as "free" chlorine. In wastewaters containing reduced compounds such as sulfide, ferrous iron, organic matter, and ammonia, the free chlorine rapidly reacts in nonspecific side reactions with the reduced compounds, producing chloramines, a variety of chloro-organics, and chloride. Free chlorine is the,most powerful disinfectant, while chloride has virtually no disinfectant capabilities. The other chloro-compounds, often called combined chlorine, demonstrate disinfectant properties that range from moderate to weak. Measurement of "chlorine residual" detects all of these forms except chloride. The difference between the chlorine dose and the residual, called "chlorine demand," represents the consumption, of chlorine by reduced materia1.s in the wastewater (Table 6-22). Thus, in disinfection system design, it is the chlorine residual (free and combined) that is of importance in destroying pathogens.

164

TABLE 6-22

CHLORINE DEMAND OF SELECTED DOMESTIC WASTEWATERSa

Chlorine Demand

-Fin---

8 - 15

30 - 45

10 - 25

1 - 5

a Estimated concentration of chlorine consumed in nonspecific side reactions with 15-minute contact time.

Iodine is normally used in the elemental crystalline form, I , for water and wastewater disinfection. Iodine hydrolyzes in water to f arm the hy- poiodus forms, HI0 and IO’, and iodate, I03. Normally, the predominant disinfectant species in water are 12, HIO, and IO’, as little IO3 will be found at normal wastewater pH values (less than pH 8.0). Iodine does not appear to react very rapidly with organic compounds or ammonia in wastewaters. As with chlorine, however, most wastewaters will exhibit an iodine demand due to nonspecific side reactions. The reduced form of iodine, iodide, which is not an effective disinfectant, is not detected by iodine residual analyses.


The halogens are probably the most practical disinfectants for use in onsite wastewater treatment applications. They are effective against waterborne pathogens, reliable, easy to apply, and are readily available.

165

The use of chlorine as a disinfectant may result in the production of chlorinated by-products which may be toxic to aquatic life. No toxic by-products have been identified for iodine at this time.

6.5.2.3 Performance

The performance of halogen disinfectants is dependent upon halogen residual concentration and contact time, wastewater characteristics, na- ture of the specific pathogen, and wastewater temperature (20). Waste- water characteristics may effect the selection of the halogen as well as the required dosage due to the nonspecific side reactions that occur (halogen demand). Chlorine demands for various wastewaters are presented in Table 6-22. The demand of wastewaters for iodine is less clear. Some investigators have reported iodine demands 7 to 10 times higher than those for chlorine in wastewaters (46)(47) while others indicate that iodine should be relatively inert to reduced compounds when compared to chlorine (48). Design of halogen systems is normally based upon dose-contact relationships since the goal of disinfection is to achieve a desired level of pathogen destruction in a reasonable length of time with the least amount of disinfectant. Because of the nonspecific side reactions that occur, it is important to distinguish between halogen dose and halogen residual after a given contact period in evaluating the disinfection process.

Table 6-23 provides a summary of halogen residual-contact time information for a variety of organisms (43). These are average values taken from a number of studies and should be used with caution. Relationships developed between disinfectant residual, contact time, and efficiency are empirical. They may be linear for certain organisms, but are often more complex. Thus, it is not necessarily true that doubling the contact time will halve the halogens residual requirements for destruction of certain pathogens. In the absence of sufficient data to make these judgements, conservative values are normally employed for residual-dose requirements.

The enteric bacteria are more sensitive to the halogens than cysts or virus. Thus, the use of indicator organisms to judge effective disinfection must be cautiously employed.

Temperature effects also vary with pathogen and halogen, and the general rule of thumb indicates that there should be a two to threefold decrease in rate of kill for every loo C decrease in temperature within the limits of 5 to 30' C.

166

TABLE 6-23

PERFORMANCE OF HALOGENS AND OZONE AT 25°C [After (43)1

Halogen

Necessary Residual After 10 Min. to Achieve 99.999% Destruction (mg/l)

Amoebic tnteric Entenc cysts Bacteria Vi rus

HOC1 (Predominates (h pH (7.5)

3.5 0.02 0.4

OCL- (Predominates Q pH >7.5)

40 1.5 100

NH2Cla 20 4 20

12 (Predominates 8 pH (7.0)

3.5 0.2 15

HIO/IO- (Predominates 7 0.05 0.5 8 8.0>pH>7.0)

03 0.3->1.8 0.2-0.3 0.2-0.3

a NHC12:NH2Cl Efficiency = 3.5~1

6.5.2.4 Design Criteria

The design of disinfection processes requires the determination of the wastewater characteristics, wastewater temperature, pathogen to be destroyed, and disinfectant to be employed (20). From this information, the required residual-concentration relationship may be developed and disinfectant dose may be calculated.

Wastewater characteristics dictate both halogen demand and the species of the disinfectant that predominates. In effluents from sand filters, chlorine demands would be low and, depending upon pH, hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite would prevail if chlorine is used. (The effluent would be almost completely nitrified, leaving little ammonia available for reaction). At pH values below 7.5, the more potent free chlorine form,

167

HOC1 , would predominate. It is clear from Table 6-23 that pH plays an important role in the effectiveness of chlorine disinfection against virus and cysts (10 to 300 fold differences).

The effect of temperature is often ignored except to ensure that conser- vatively long contact times are selected for disinfection. Temperature corrections are necessary for estimating iodine doses if a saturator is employed, since the solubility of iodine in water decreases dramatically with decreased temperature.

Design of onsite wastewater disinfection systems must result in conservative dose-contact time values, since careful control of the process is not feasible. Guidelines for chlorine and iodine disinfection for onsite applications are presented in Table 6-24. These values are guidelines only, and more definitive analysis may be warranted in specific cases.

TABLE 6-24

HALOGEN DOSAGE DE SIGN GUIDELINES

Dosea Septic Tank Package Biological Sand Filter

Disinfectant Effluent Process Effluent Effluent Wl mgfl w/l

Chlorine -pH 6 PH 7 pH 8

Iodi neb pH 6-8

35-50 15-30 2-10 40-55 20-35 10-20 50-65 30-45 20-35

300-400 go-150 10-50

a Contact time = 1 hour at average flow and 20°C; increase contact time to 2 hours at 10°C and 8 hours at 5°C for similar efficiency.

b Based upon very small data base, assuming iodine demand from 3 to 7 times that of chlorine.

168

The sizing of halogen feed systems is dependent upon the form of the halogen used and the method of distribution. presented below.

Sample calculations are

Sample calculations:

Estimate of sodium hypochlorite dose - liquid feed

Halogen: NaOCl - trade strength 15% (150 g/l) Dose required: 20 mg/l available chlorine Wastewater flow: 200 gpd average

1. Available chlorine =

(150 g/l) x (3.785 l/ga

2. Dose required =

(20 mg/l) x (3.785 l/ga

= 1.67 x 10s4 lb/gal

3. Dose required =

(1.67 x 1O-4

4. NaOCl dose =

(3.34 x 1o-2

) x (1.0 lb/453.6 g) = 1.25 lb/gal

) x (1 lb/453.6 g) x (10m3 g/mg)

b/gal) x (200 gal/d) = 3.34 x 10m2 lb/d

b/d) + (1.25 lb/gal) = 0.027 gal/day

Estimate of haloqen desian - tablet feed

Halogen: Ca(OCL) tablet - 115 g; commercial strength 70% Dose Required: 29 mg/l available chlorine Wastewater Flow: 200 gpd (750 l/d)

1. Available chlorine in tablet = 0.7 x 115(g) = 80.5 g/tablet

2. Dose required = 20 (mg/l) x 750 (l/d) = 15 g/d

3. Tablet consumption = B 15 (g/d) . 5 ( g,tab,et] = 0.19 tab1 ets/day

or: 5.4 days/tablet

169


a. Feed Systems

There are basically three types of halogen feed systems commercially available for onsite application: stack or tablet feed systems, liquid feed systems, and saturators. Tablet feed devices for Ca(OCl)2 tablets (Figure 6-13) are constructed of durable, corrosion-free plastic or fiberglass, and are designed for in-line installation. Wastewater flows past the tablets of Ca(OCl)2, dissolving them in proportion to flow rate (depth of immersion). Tablets are added as requried upon manual inspection of the unit. One commercial device provides 29-115 g/tablet per tube which would require refilling in approximately 155 days (5.4 days/tablet x 29).

Halogens may also be fed to the wastewater by an aspirator feeder or a suction feeder. The aspirator feeder operates on a simple hydraulic principle that employs the use of the vacuum created when water flows either through a venturi tube or perpendicular to a nozzle. The vacuum created draws the disinfection solution from a container into the disinfection unit, where it is mixed with wastewater passing through the unit. The mixture is then injected into the main wastewater stream. Suction feeders operate by pulling the disinfection solution from a container by suction into the disinfection unit. The suction may be created by either a pump or a siphon.

The storage reservoir containing the halogen should provide ample volume for several weeks of operation. A l-gal (4-l) storage tank would hold sufficient 15% sodium hypochlorite solution for approximately 37 days before refill (see sample computation). A 2-gal (8-l) holding tank would supply 50 days of 10% sodium hypochlorite. A 15% sodium hypochlorite solution would deteriorate to one-half its original strength in 100 days at 25°C (49). The deterioration rate of sodium hypochlorite decreases with decreased strength; therefore, a 10% solution would decrease to one-half strength in about 220 days.

If liquid halogen is dispersed in this fashion, care must be taken to select materials of construction that are corrosion-resistant. This includes storage tanks, piping, and appurtenances as well as the pump.

Iodine is best applied to wastewater by means of a saturator whereby crystals of iodine are dissolved in carriage water subsequent to being pumped to a contact chamber (Figure 6-14). Saturators may be constructed or purchased commercially. The saturator consists of a tank of fiberglass or other durable plastic containing a supporting base medium

170

FIGURE 6-13

STACK FEED CHLORINATOR

R FeedTubes

“"i 1

-I I \ Water Outlet

Water Inlet

171

e

Wastewater

FIGURE 6-14

IODINE SATURATOR

Tank

t

Iodine Solution

Iodine Crystals

172

and iodine crystals. fed to the saturator.

Pretreated wastewater is split, and one stream is The dissolution of iodine is dependent upon water

temperature, ranging from 200 to 400 mg/l (Table 6-21). The iodine solution from the saturator is subsequently blended with the wastewater stream, which is discharged to a contact chamber. saturator size and dosage requirements,

Depending upon replenishment of iodine every 1

to 2 yr may be required (assumes a dosage of 50 mg/l for 750 l/day using a 0.2-cu-ft saturator).

b. Contact Basin

Successful disinfection depends upon the proper mixing and contact of the disinfectant with the wastewater. If good mixing is achieved, a contact time of 1 hour should be sufficient to achieve most onsite disinfection objectives when using doses presented in Table 6-24. Where flows are low (e.g., under 1,000 gal per day) (3,785 1 per day), contact basins may be plastic, fiberglass, or a length of concrete pipe placed vertically and outfitted with a concrete base (Figure 6-15). A 48-in. (122-cm) diameter concrete section would theoretically provide 6 hr of wastewater detention for an average flow of 200 gal per day (757 1 per day) if the water depth were only approximately 6 in. (15 cm). A 36-in. (91-cm) diameter pipe section provides 6 hr detention at approximately 12 in. (30 cm) of water depth for the same flow. Therefore, substantially longer theoretical detention times than necessary for ideal mixing conditions are provided using 36- or 48-in. (91- or 122-cm) diameter pipe. This oversizing may be practically justified for onsite applications, with low flows, since good mixing may be difficult to achieve.

Contact basins should be baffled in order to prevent serious short- circuitinq within the basin. One samole baffling arrangement is illus- trated in"Figure 6-15.

6.5.2.6 Operation and Mainten

The disinfection system should be des maintenance requirements, yet insure operation and maintenance of premixed consists of replacing chemicals, adjust

nce

gned to minimize operation and reliable treatment. Routine

liquid solution feed equipment ng feed rates, and maintaining

the mechanical components. Tablet feed chlorination devices should require less frequent attention, although recent experience indicates that caking of hypochlorite tablets occurs due to the moisture in the chamber. Caking may result in insufficient dosing of chlorine, but may also produce excessive dosage due to cake deterioration and subsequent spillage into the wastewater stream. Dissolution of chlorine may also be erratic, requiring routine adjustment of tablet and liquid elevation

173

(experience with some units indicates that dissolution rates actually increase with decreased flow rates). Routine maintenance of iodine saturators includes replacing chemicals, occasionally adjusting feed rates, redistributing iodine crystals within the saturator, and maintaining mechanical components.

FIGURE 6-15

SAMPLE CONTACT CHAMBER

Wastewater with

Disinfectant

/ConcretePipeSection

LWooden Baffles

Process control is best achieved by periodic analysis of halogen residuals in the contact chamber. The halogen residuals can be measured by unskilled persons using a color comparator. Periodic bacteriological analyses of treated effluents provide actual proof of efficiency. Skilled technicians are required to sample and analyze for indicator organisms or pathogens.

174

It is estimated that tablet feed chlorinators could be operated with approximately 6 unskilled man-hr per yr including monthly chlorine residual analyses. Iodine saturator systems and halogen liquid feed systems may require 6 to 10 semi-skilled man-hr per yr. Electrical power consumption would be highly variable depending upon other process pumping requirements, as well as the use of metering pumps and controls. Chemical requirements will vary, but are estimated to be about 5 to 25 lb (2 to 11 kg) of iodine and 5 to 15 lb (2 to 7 kg) of available chlorine per yr for a family of four.

6.5.2.7 Other Considerations

In making a final decision on halogen disinfection, other considerations "' must be included in addition to cost, system effectiveness, and relia-

bility. Without a dechlorination step, chlorine disinfection may be ruled out administratively. Currently, there is no evidence that iodine or its compounds are toxic to aquatic life.

6.5.3 Ultraviolet Irradiation

6.5.3.1 Description

The germicidal properties of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation have been rec- ognized for many years (50)(51). UV irradiation has been used for the disinfection of water supplies here and abroad, and currently finds widest application for small water systems for homes, commercial estab- lishments, aboard ship, and in some industrial water purification systems. The use of UV irradiation for wastewater disinfection has only recently been seriously studied (52)(53).

Ultraviolet is germicidal in the wave length range of 2,300 to 3,000 w, its greatest efficiency being at 2,540 A. Currently, high-intensity, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps emit a major percentage of their energy at this wave length, making them most efficient for use. The primary mode of action of UV is the denaturation of nucleic acids, making it especially effective against virus.

In order to be effective, UV energy must reach the organism to be destroyed. Unfortunately, UV energy is rapidly absorbed in water and by a variety of organic and inorganic molecules in water. Thus, the transmittance or absorbance properties of the water to be treated are critical to successful UV disinfection. To achieve disinfection, the water to be treated is normally exposed in a thin film to the UV source. This may be accomplished by enclosing the UV lamps within a chamber, and

175

directing flow through and around the lamps. It may also be accomplished by exposing a thin film of water flowing over a surface or weir to a bank of lamps suspended above and/or below the water surface.

The lamps are encased within a clear, high transmittance, fused quartz glass sleeve in order to protect them. This also insulates the lamps so as to maintain an optimum lamp temperature (usually about 105’ F or 41" C). To ensure maintenance of a very high transmittance through the quartz glass enclosure, wipers are usually provided with this equipment. Figures 6-16 and 6-17 depict a typical UV disinfection lamp arrangement currently being used. .There are a number of commercially available units that may be applicable to onsite wastewater applications.


Site conditions should not restrict the use of UV irradiation processes for onsite application, although a power source is required. The unit must be housed to protect it from excessive heat, freezing, and dust. Wastewater characteristics limit the applicability of UV equipment since energy transmission is dependent upon the absorbance of the water to be treated. Therefore, only well-treated wastewater can be disinfected with UV.

6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Performance

The effectiveness of UV disinfection is dependent upon UV power, contact time, liquid film thickness, wastewater absorbance, process configuration, input voltage, and temperature (50)(51)(52).

The UV power output for a lamp is dependent upon the input voltage, lamp temperature, and lamp characteristics. Typically, UV output may vary from as low as 68% of rated capacity at 90 volts to 102% at 120 volts. Lamp temperatures below and above about 104" F (40' C) also results in decreased output. The use of quartz glass enclosures normally ensures maintenance of optimum temperature within the lamp.

Since disinfection by UV requires that the UV energy reaches the organisms, a measure of wastewater absorbance is crucial to proper design. Transmissability is calculated as an exponential function of depth of penetration and the absorption coefficient of the wastewater:

176

c--r u U

FIGURE 6-16

TYPICAL UV DISINFECTION UNIT

Mounting Brackets for Easy Installation Vertical or Horizontal

1 l-L Flow Control Valve \ c)..-,..,,LI,

Power Supply /

nar~~uveau~e

Flanged head

1-1 f6l ” r -1 I

Sterlizing Chamber (see Figure 6-l 7) In TiY?I

I I

I

I--!, P-L- fir ra11-3a~t: lvlonitor

Warning

I

/ Solenoid Shut Off Valve LJ

Extension t Inlet

a

Drain Plug

FIGURE 6-17

TYPICAL UV STERILIZING CHAMBER

Baffles force the water to travel tangetially through the chamber in a spinning motion around quartz sleeves.

Sterlizing Chamber

Ultraviolet light rays are emitted from high intensity ultraviolet lamps and pass through the quartz sleeves.

Typical sterilizers employ one to twelve lamps per sterilizing chamber.

178

whe e I:

T is the draction transmitted, a is the absorption coefficient in cm' at 2,537 A, and d is the depth in cm. Typically, a very high- quality distilled water will have an absorption coefficient of 0.008, where tap water would normally vary from 0.18 to 0.20. Wastewaters pol- ished with sand filtration should produce absorption coefficients of from 0.13 to 0.20, whereas septic tank effluents may be as high as 0.5. Currently, rule of thumb requirements for UV application indicate that turbidities should be less than 10 JTU and color less than 15 mg/l. (1 Jackson Turbidity Unit [JTU] is about equivalent to 1 Formazin Turbidity Unit [FTU]).

The relationship between UV power and contact time is still uncertain. Empirical relationships have been used to express the performance of UV equipment. Currently the empirical term, microwatt seconds per square centimeter (mw sec/cn?), is used (50)(51).

The required contact time for a given exposure is dictated by the wastewater absorbance, film thickness, and the pathogen to be destroyed. Typical values of UV dosage for selected organisms appear in Table 6-25.

This tabulation indicates that a wide spectrum of organisms are about equally sensitive to UV irradiation. There are exceptions to this, ho!- ever; Bacillus spores require dosages in $ xcess of 220,000 mw set/cm., and protozoan as high as 300,000 mw set/cm .

One characteristic trait of UV disinfection of water has been the photoreactivation of treated organisms within the wastewater. Exposure of the wastewater to sunlight following UV disinfection has produced as much as 1.5 log increase in organisms concentration. This phenomena does not always occur, however, and recent field tests indicate that photoreactivation may not be of significant concern (52).

6.5.3.4 Design

There has been little long-term experience with wastewater UV disinfection (2)(52)(53). Therefore, firm design criteria are not available. One may draw upon water supply disinfection criteria, however, for conservative design (50)(51).

179

TABLE 6-25

UV DOSAGE FOR SELECTED ORGANISMS

Organism Dosage for 99% Kill at a = 0.0

IIW sec/cm2

Shigella 4,000

Salmonella 6,000

Poliovirus 6,000

IH Viral Form 8,000

E. Coli 7,000

Protozoan 180-300,OOOa

Fecal Coliform 23,000b

a For 99.9% inactivation.

b Field studies corrected to a = 0; 99.96% inactivation.

Wastewater should be pretreated to a quality such that turbidity is less than 10 JTU and color is less than 15 mg/l. Intermittent sand filtered effluent quality will generally not exceed these limits when properly managed. It would be desirable to provide measurement of UV transmittance in the wastewater on a continuous basis to ensure that sufficient UV power reaches the organism to be treated. Dosage values should be conservative until more data are available. mum UV dose of, 16,000 mw sec/cm2 or kw set/m J

herefore, a desired mini- should be applied at all

points throughout the disinfection chamber. A maximum depth of penetration should be limited to about 2 in. (5 cm) to allow for variation in wastewater absorption. The UV lamps should be enclosed in a quartz glass sleeve and appropriate-automatic cleaning devices should be provided. A UV intensity meter should be installed at a point of greatest water depth from the UV tubes,.and an alarm provided to alert the owner when values fall below on acceptable level.

180


Commercially available UV units sold primarily for water supply disinfection are applicable for onsite wastewater disinfection. Most of these units are self-contained and employ high-intensity UV irradiation over a thin film of water for short contact times.

The self-contained unit should be installed following the last treatment process in the treatment sequence, and should be protected from dust, excessive heat, and freezing. It should be accessible for maintenance and control. As described in the previous section, the unit should be equipped with a cleaning device (manual or automatic) and an intensity meter that is properly calibrated. Flow to the unit should be maintained relatively constant. This is often achieved by means of a pressure compensated flow control valve.

Some larger UV modules are available that consist of a series of lamps encased within quartz glass enclosures. The module may be placed within the flow stream such that all water passes through the module. UV lamps positioned over discharge weirs, and therefore out of the water, are also available. These systems are not as efficient as flow through units since only a fraction of the lamp arc intercepts the water. Con- trol of the water film over the weir plate (V-notch or sharp crested) is difficult to maintain unless upstream flows are carefully regulated. Cleaning and metering devices are required for both of these systems.

Depending on upstream processes and the UV unit employed, the UV system may be operated on a continuous flow or intermittent basis. For small flows, self-contained tubular units and intermittent flow would be employed. Influent to the unit could be pumped to the UV system from a holding tank. In order to obtain full-life expectancy of the UV lamps, they should be operated continuously regardless of flow arrangement. Where UV modules are employed, continuous flow through the contact chamber may be more practical.


Routine operational requirements include quartz glass enclosure cleaning, lamp replacement, and UV intensity meter reading. Since UV disinfection does not produce a residual, the only monitoring required would be periodic bacterial' analyses by skilled technicians. Periodic maintenance of pumping equipment and controls, and cleaning of quartz jackets during lamp replacement, would also be required.

181

Cleaning of quartz glass enclosures is of paramount importance since UV transmittance is severely impaired by the accumulation of slimes on the enclosures. Cleaning is required at least 3 to 4 times per year at a minimum, and more often for systems employing intermittent flow. If automatic wipers are employed, the frequency of manual cleaning may be reduced to twice per year. Expected lives of lamps are variable, normally ranging from 7,000 to 12,500 hours. It is good practice, however, to replace lamps every 10 months, or when metered UV intensity falls below acceptable values. A complete cleaning of quartz glass enclosures with alcohol is required during lamp replacement. Based on limited operational experience, it is estimated that 10 to 12 man-hr per yr are required to maintain the UV system. Power requirements for the UV system for design flow rates up to 4 gpm (0.25 l/ set) are approximately 1.5 kWh/day.

6.5.4 Ozonation

6.5.4.1 Description

Ozone, 0 , 1

a pale blue gas with pungent odor, is a powerful oxidizing agent. t is only slightly soluble in water, depending upon temperature, and is highly unstable. Because of its instability, ozone must be generated on site.

Ozone is produced by the dissociation of molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen with subsequent formation of 0 .

?I It is produced commercially by

passing an oxygen-containing feed gas etween electrodes separated by an insulating material (54)(55). In the presence of a high-voltage, high- frequency discharge, ozone is generated from oxygen in the electrode gap-

Ozone is a powerful disinfectant against virus, protozoan cysts, and vegetative bacteria (54)(55)(56)(57). It is normally sparged into the water to be treated by means of a variety of mixing and contact devices. Because of its great reactivity, ozone will interact with a variety of materials in the water, resulting in an ozone demand. The short half- life of ozone also results in the rapid disappearance of an ozone residual in the treated water.


Ozone is currently used to disinfect water supplies in the United States and Europe, and is considered an excellent candidate as an alternate wastewater disinfectant (54)(55)(56)(57). The major drawback to its

182

widespread use to date has been the expense of generation. There is no documented long-term field experience with ozone disinfection onsite.

Since ozone is a highly corrosive and toxic gas, its generation and use onsite must be carefully monitored and controlled. The generator requires an appropriate power source, and must be properly housed to protect it from the elements. Wastewater characteristics will have an impact on ozone disinfectant efficiency and must be considered in the evaluation of this process.

Data on the effectiveness of ozone residuals against pathogens are scant. Employing the same criteria as used for halogens, ozone appears to be more effective against virus and amoebic cysts than the halogens (Table 6-23).

The literature indicates that ozone action is not appreciably affected by pH variations between 5.0 and 8.0 (58). Turbidity above values of 5 JTU has a pronounced effect upon ozone dosage requirements, however (47)(58). Limited field experience indicates that ozone requirements may approximately double with a doubling of turbidity to achieve comparable destruction of organisms (47).

Currently, with very limited operating data, prescribed ozone applied dosages recommended for wastewater disinfection vary from 5 to 15 mg/l depending upon contactor efficiencies and pathogen to be destroyed.


The ozone disinfection system consists of the ozone gas generation equipment, a contactor, appropriate pumping capacity to the contactor and controls. There are two basic types of generating equipment. The tube-type unit is an air-cooled system whereby ozone is generated between steel electrode plates faced with ceramic. Oxygen-containing feed gas may be pure oxygen, oxygen-enriched air, or air. The gas is cleaned, usually through cartride-type inpingement filters, and compressed to about 10 psi. The compressed gas is subsequently cooled and then dried prior to being reacted in the ozone contacting chamber. Dry- ing is essential to prevent serious corrosion problems within the generator.

The generated ozone-enriched air is intimately mixed with wastewater in a contacting device. Ozone contactors include simple bubble diffusers in an open tank, packed columns, and positive pressure injection (PPI) devices. Detention times within these systems range from 8-15 min in

283

the bubble diffuser units to lo-30 set in packed columns and PPI systems (59)(60). Limited data are currently avail able on long-term use of these contactor devices for onsite systems. There are relatively few field-tested, small-capacity systems commercially available.


The ozone disinfection system is a complex series of mechanical and electrical units, requiring substantial maintenance, and is susceptible to a variety of malfunctions. Since data on long-term experience are relatively unavailable, it is not possible to assess maintenance requirements on air cleaning equipment, compressors, cooling and drying equipment, and contactors. It is estimated that 8 to 10 kWh/lb of ozone generated will be required (54). Monitoring requirements are similar to those for UV disinfection, including occasional bacterial analyses and routine ozone monitoring.

6.6 Nutrient Removal

6.6.1 Introduction

6.6.1.1 Objectives

Nitrogen and phosphorus may have to be removed from wastewaters under certain circumstances. Roth are plant nutrients and may cause undesir- able growths of plants in lakes and impoundments. Nitrogen may also create problems as a toxicant to fish (free ammonia), as well as to ani- mals and humans (nitrates). In addition, the presence of reduced nitrogen may create a significant oxygen demand in surface waters.

Nitrogen may be found in domestic wastewaters as organic nitrogen, as ammonium, or in the oxidized form as nitrite and nitrate. The usual forms of phosphorus in domestic wastewater include orthophosphate, poly- phosphate, pyrophosphate, and organic phosphate. Sources of wastewater nitrogen and phosphorus from the home are presented in Table 4-4.

The removal or transformation of nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewaters has been the subject of intensive research and demonstration over the past 15 to 20 yr. Excellent reviews of the status of these treatment processes can be found in the literature (61)(62). As discussed in Chapter 7, the soil may also. serve to remove and/or transform the nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewaters percolating through them.

284

The treatment objective for nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater is dependent upon the ultimate means of disposal. Surface water quality objectives may require limitations of total phosphate, organic and ammonia nitrogen, and/or total nitrogen. Subsurface water quality objectives are less well developed, but may restrict nitrate-nitrogen and/or total phosphate.

6.6.1.2 Application of Nutrient Removal Processes to Onsite Treatment

There are a number of nutrient removal processes applicable to onsite wastewater treatment, but there are very little data on long-term field applications of these systems. In-house wastewater management through segregation and household product selection appears to be the most practical and cost-effective method for nitrogen and phosphorus control onsite. Septic tanks may remove a portion of these nutrients as flot- able and settleable solids. Other applicable chemical, physical, or biological processes may also be employed to achieve a given level of nutrient removal. Although these supplemental processes may be very effective in removing nutrients, they are normally complex and energy and labor intensive.

Since the state-of-the-art application of onsite nutrient removal is limited, the discussion that follows is brief. Processes that may be successful for onsite application are described. Acceptable design, construction, and operation data are presented where they are available.

6.6.2 Nitrogen Removal

6.6.2.1 Description

Table 6-26 outlines the potential onsite nitrogen control options. In many instances, these options also achieve other treatment objectives as well, and should be evaluated as to their overall performance. The removal or transformation of nitrogen within the soil absorption system is described fully in Chapter 7.

6.6.2.2 In-House Segregation

Chapter 4 provides a detailed description of the household wastewater characteristics and sources of these wastewaters. Between 78 and 90% of the nitrogen in the wastewater discharged from the home is from toilets. Separation of toilet wastewaters would result in average nitrogen levels

185

Option

In-House Segregation

Biological Nitri fication

Biological Denitrifi cation

Ion Exchange

TABLE 6-26

POTENTIAL ONSITE NITROGEN CONTROL OPTIONSa

Description

Separate toilet wastes from other wastewater

Granular Filters

Aerobic package plants

Anaerobic processes following nitrification

Cationic exchange-NH4

Anionic exchange-NO3

Effectiveness

78-90% removal of N in blackwater

>90% conversion to nitrate

85-95% conversion to nitrate

80-95% removal of N

>99% removal of NH: or NO2

Comments

Management of residue required

Achieves high level of BOD and solids removal

May achieve good levels of BOD and solids removal; labor/energy intensive; residue management

Requires carbon source; labor intensive; high capital cost

Very high operation costs

Onsite Technology

Status

Good

Good

Good

Tentative

Tentative

a Not including the soil absorption system--see Chapter 7.

of about 0.004 lb/cap/day (1.9 mg/cap/day) or 17 mg/l as N in the re- maining graywater (Tables 4-4 and 4-5). Chapter 5 describes the process features, the performance, and the operation and maintenance of low- water carriage and waterless toilet systems. The resultant residuals from toilet segregation, whether they be ash, compost, chemical sludge, or blackwater, must be considered in this treatment strategy. A discussion of residuals disposal is presented in Chapter 9.

The success of this method of nitrogen removal is dependent upon appropriate management of the in-house segregation fixtures and the disposal of the residues from them. These devices must be considered a part of the treatment system when developing appropriate authority for institu- tional control.

6.6.2.3 Biological Processes

Nitrogen undergoes a variety of biochemical transformations depending upon its form and the environmental conditions (61). Organic nitrogen in domestic wastewaters readily undergoes decomposition to ammonia in either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In an aerobic environment, a select group of bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitrite and ultimately nitrate. Nitrates may be reduced by a variety of organisms to various nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions. Depending upon the treatment objectives, one or several of these processes may be employed to achieve the desired end product.

a. Applicability

A number of biological processes for nitrogen conversion are applicable to onsite treatment. Domestic wastewater characteristics should not limit application of these processes, provided the nitrogen is in the appropriate for-m for conversion. Since biological processes are temperature-sensitive, such systems should be covered and insulated in cold climates. Covering also contains odors, should problems occur.

b. Process Performance

Although data are sketchy, about 2 to 10% of the total nitrogen from the home may be removed in the septic tank with septage (63)(64). Approxi- mately 65 to 75% of the total nitrogen in septic tank effluents is in the ammonia-nitrogen form, indicating a significant level of decomposition of organic nitrogen (2).

187

Nitrification of septic tank effluents occurs readily within intermittent sand filters (see Section 6.3). Field expfrience ingicstes that intermittent sand filters loaded up to 5 gpd/ft (0.02 cm /m /d), and properly maintained to avoid excessive ponding (and concomitant anaerobic conditions), converts up to 99% of the influent ammonia to nitrate- nitrogen (2). Aerobic biological package plants also provide a high degree of nitrification, provided solids retention times are long and sufficient oxygen is available (see Section 6.6).

The biological denitrification (nitrates to nitrogen gases) of wastewater follows a nitrification step (61). There has been little experience with long-term field performance of onsite denitrification processes. Ideally, total nitrogen removal in excess of 90% should be achievable, if the system is properly operated and maintained (61).

C. Design- and Construction Features

Septi;*Tanis: There are no septic tank design requirements specifically estab lshe to enhance high levels of nitrogen removal. Designs that provide excellent solid-liquid separation ensure lower concentrations of nitrogen associated with suspended solids.

Nitrification: Biological nitrification is achieved by a select group of aerobic ml'croorganisms referred to as nitrifiers (61). These organisms are relatively slow-growing and more sensitive to environmental conditions than the broad range of microorganisms found in biological wastewater treatment processes. The rate of growth of nitrifiers (and thus the rate of nitrification) is dependent upon a number of parameters, including temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and certain toxicants. The design and operating parameter used to reflect the growth rates of nitrifiers is the solids retention time (SRT). Details of the impact of temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and toxicants on design SRT values for nitrification systems are outlined in reference (61). In brief, biological nitrification systems are designed with SRT values in excess of 10 days; dissolved oxygen concentrations should be in excess of 2.0 mg/l; and pH values should range between 6.5 and 8.5. Toxicants known to be troublesome are discussed in reference (61).

Details of the design and construction of intermittent sand filters and aerobic package plants are found in Sections 6.3 and 6.4. In general, designs normally employed for onsite application of these processes to remove BOD and solids are sufficient to encourage nitrification as well.

Denitrification: Biological denitrification is carried out under anoxic conditions in the presence of facultative, heterotrophic microorganisms

188

which conve.rt nitrate to nitrogen gases (61). Numerous microorganisms are capable of carrying out this process, provided there is an organic carbon source available. These organisms are less sensitive to environmental conditions than the nitrifiers, but the process is temperature- dependent. Process design and operational details for conventional denitrification processes are discussed in reference (61).

Design and operational experience with onsite biological denitrification systems is limited at this time (2)(65)(66). Several systems have been suggested for onsite application, two of which are shown in Figure 6- 18. One employs a packed bed containing approximately 3/8-in. (l-cm) stone that receives, on a batch basis, effluent from a nitrification process. The nitrified wastewater flows to a dosing tank, where it is held until a predetermined volume is obtained. Methanol (or other organic carbon source) is then added to provide a C:N ratio of approximately 3:l. After approximately 15 min, the wastewater is pumped up through the anoxic packed stone bed. Effluent flows from the top of the bed. Liquid retention times in the packed bed (based on void volume) varying from 12 to 24 hours have been employed with good results (2). Pumping may be provided by a l/3-hp submersible pump actuated by a switch float within the sump. A small chemical feed pump controlled by a timer switch may be used to feed the organic carbon source to the sump. A 30% methanol solution may be used as the carbon source. Other organic carbon sources include septic tank effluent, graywater, and molasses. Metering of organic carbon source to the nitrified wastewater requires substantial control to ensure a proper C:N ratio. Insufficient carbon results in decreased denitrification rates, whereas excess carbon contributes to the final effluent BOD (61). The use of an easily ob- tainable, slowly decomposable, solid carbon source could also be considered. Peat, forest litter, straw, and paper mill sludges, for example, could be incorporated as a portion of the upflow filter. Control of the denitrification process using these solid carbon sources would be difficult.

Another onsite nitrification-denitrification system that has been field tested employs a soil leach field (66) (Figure 6-18). Septic tank effluent is distributed to a standard soil absorption field. An impermeable shield of fiberglass is placed approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) below the distribution line. The location of this collector should be deep enough to ensure complete nitrification within the overlying unsaturated soil. The nitrified wastewater is collected on the sloped fiberglass shield, and directed to a 24-in. (61-cm) deep bed of pea gravel contained within a plastic liner (denitrifying reactor). The gravel bed is sized deep enough to provide a hydraulic detention time of approximately 10 days (based on void volume). Methanol or other energy source is metered to the gravel bed through a series of distributors. The gravel bed is vented with vertical pipes to allow escape of nitrogen gas evolved in the process. Short-term experience with this system has been good. Total nitrogen concentrations of less than 1 mg/l-N were achievable in

189

FIGURE 6-18

ONSITE DENITRIF ICATION SYSTEMS

Methanol ,-Pump and

Fro N itrifvinn Effluent

0

Float Control

Tank

Batch Denitrification

Pump

Irn Pt ‘ocess

Influe?

Denitrification Tank -

L Impermeable Liner

Nitrification-Denitrification in Soil

190

effluent samples during summer months. Higher values (5-10 mg/l-N) were observed during the colder winter months.

Although no studies have been reported in the literature for onsite applications, intermittent or cycled extended aeration processes are potentially promising (61)(67) for the nitrification-denitrification of wastewater. This process makes use of existing proprietary extended aeration package plants where aeration is cycled to provide both aerobic and anoxic environments. In this mode of operation, sufficient solids retention time (SRT) is provided to insure nitrification, and a sufficient period of anoxic holding is provided to insure denitrification. The biomass serves as the energy source for denitrification. The cycle times vary dependent on temperature and wastewater characteristics. A typical cycle, using a SRT of 20 days, aerates 180 min and holds anoxic for 90 min (67). Nitrogen removals in excess of 50% are attainable with this system (2)(67). Operation of the cyclic aeration system requires substantial supervision for a period of time until proper sequences have been selected.

d. Operation and Maintenance

Nitrification Systems: Operation and maintenance requirements to achieve nitrification in either intermittent sand filters or aerobic package units are not significantly different from those discussed in Sections 6.3 and 6.4. In both systems, the process must be maintained in an aerobic condition at all times to ensure effective nitrification.

Denitrification Systems: Operation and maintenance requirements ,.for denitrification systems are normally complex and require semi-skilled labor for proper performance. In addition to routine maintenance of pumping systems, mixers, and timer controls, the addition and balance of a carbon source is required.

Routine analyses of nitrogen compounds and biological solids is also important. Rough estimates for semi-skilled labor for maintenance of an onsite denitrification system varies from 15 to 30 man-hr per yr. If methanol is used as a carbon source, it is estimated that from 33 to 55 lb/yr (15 to 25 kg/yr) are required for a family of four. Power requirements for methanol feed and pumping are about 15 to 25 kWh/yr.

6.6.2.4 Ion Exchange

Ion exchange is a process whereby ions of a given species are displaced from an insoluble exchange material by ions of a different species in

191

solution. It can be used to remove either ammonium or nitrate nitrogen from wastewaters. This process has been employed in full-scale water and wastewater treatment plants for several years (61)(67)(68), but there is no long-term experience with the process for nitrogen removal in onsite applications.

Nitrogen removal by ion exchange has potential for onsite application, since it is very effective and is simple to operate. Unfortunately, periodic replacement of the exchange media is expensive and regeneration of the media onsite does not appear to be practical at this time. Site conditions and climatological factors should not limit its application.

a. Ammonia Removal

Ammonia removal may be achieved by employing the naturally occurring exchange media, clinoptilolite, which has a high affinity for the ammonium ion (61). Laboratory experience has shown that packed columns of clinoptilolite resin (20 x 40 mesh) will effectively remove ammonium ion from septic tank effluent without serious clogging problems (2). Regen- eration with 5% NaCl was successful over numerous trials. BreaktQrough exchange capacity of this resin was found to be about 0.4 meq NH4 /gram in hard water at application rates of 10 bed volumes per hr. (This value will vary, increasing with decreased hardness.) Very large quantities of resin are required to treat household wastewaters (approximately 10 lb per day). Treatment of segregated graywaters substantially lower in ammonium concentration decreases the amount of resin needed.

This process employs a packed column or bed of the exchange resin following a septic tank. The waste is pumped from a sump to the column in an upflow or downflow mode on a periodic basis. Once the resin has been exhausted, it is removed and replaced by fresh material. Regeneration occurs offsite.

Operation and maintenance of this process requires routine maintenance of the pump and occasional monitoring of ammonium levels from the process. Replacement of exhausted resin is dictated by wastewater characteristics and bed volume. There are insufficient data at this time to delineate labor, power, and resin requirements.

b. Nitrate Removal

Nitrate removal from water may be achieved by the use of strong and weak base ion exchange resins (68)(69). There are very little data available

192

on long-term performance of these nitrate removal systems for wastewater. Numerous anions in water compete with nitrate for sites on these resins; therefore, tests on the specific wastewater to be treated need to be performed.

This process has potential for onsite application, where it would follow a nitrification process such as intermittent sand filters. As with ammonia resins, regeneration is performed off site.

There is insufficient information on nitrate exchange to provide design, construction, operation, and maintenance data at this time.

6.6.3 Phosphorus Removal

6.6.3.1 Description

Table 6-27 outlines the most likely treatment processes available for onsite removal of phosphorus in wastewater. In many instances, these processes will also achieve other treatment objectives as well, and must be evaluated as to their overall performance.

6.6.3.2 In-House Processes

Review of Chapter 4 indicates that the major sources of phosphorus in the home are laundry, dishwashing, and toilet wastewaters. Contribu- tions of phosphorus in the home could be reduced from approximately 4 to 2 gm/cap/day through the use of 0.5% phosphate detergents.

Segregation of toilet wastewaters (blackwater) from household wastewaters reduces phosphorus levels to approximately 2.8 gm/cap/day in the graywater stream. Chapter 4 describes the process features, performance, and operation and maintenance of low-water carriage and waterless toilet systems that would be employed for this segregation. Note that the resultant residues from these toilet systems must be considered in this treatment strategy. A discussion of residuals disposal appears in Chapter 9.

As with any in-house measure to reduce pollutional loads, the success of the process is dependent upon owner commitment and appropriate management of the alternative plumbing equipment.

193

Option

In-House Laundry detergent Segregation substitution

w co P Chemical

Precipitation: Iron, Calcium and Aluminum Salts

Sorption Processes:

Calcite or Iron

Alumina

TABLE 6-27

POTENTIAL ONSITE PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL OPTIONS

Descriotion

Separate toilet wastes from other wastewaters

Dosing prior to or following septic tanks

Beds or columns

Beds or columns

Effectiveness Comments -

Onsite Technology

Status

50% P removal

0.5% P detergents available

Excellent

20-40% P removal

Management of residues required; achieves significant BOD, SS reduction

Good

up to 90% P removal

Increases quantity of sludge; labor intensive

Fair

up to 90% P removal

Replacement required Tentative

go-99% P removal

High cost for material, labor intensive

Tentative

6.6.3.3 Chemical Precipitation

Phosphorus in wastewater may be rendered insoluble by a selected number of metal salts, including aluminum, calcium, and iron (62). Although the reactions are complex, the net result is the precipitation of an insoluble complex that contains phosphate. Phosphorus precipitation methods normally include the addition of the chemical, high-speed mixing, and slow agitation followed by sedimentation.

There has been little long-term experience with phosphorus removal of wastewaters onsite (21170). Precipitation of phosphates is less easily accomplished for polyphosphates and organic phosphorus than for orthophosphate. Therefore, precipitation within the septic tanks, although simpler to manage, may not remove a significant portion of the phosphate, which is in the poly and organic form. Substantial hydrolysis of these forms may occur in the septic tank, however, producing the ortho- form. Thus, precipitation following the septic tank may achieve higher overall removals of total phosphorus.

Performance is dependent on the point of chemical addition, chemical dosage, wastewater characteristics, and coagulation and sedimentation facilities. Dose-performance relationships must be obtained through experimentation, but one should expect phosphorus removals between 75 and 90%. Improvement in this performance may be achieved if intermittent sand filters follow the precipitation/sedimentation process. Side benefits are achieved with the addition of the precipitating chemicals. Suspended and colloidal BOD and solids will be carried down with the precipitate, producing a higher quality effluent than would otherwise be expected.

Chemical precipitation of wastewaters generates more sludge than do conventional systems due to both the insoluble end product of the added chemical and the excess suspended and colloidal matter carried down with it. Estimates of this increased quantity are very crude at this time, but may range from 200 to 300% by weight in excess of the sludge normally produced from a septic tank system.

a. Process Features

The chemicals most often used for phosphate precipitation are aluminum and iron compounds. Calcium salts may also be used, but require pH adjustment prior to final discharge to the environment. Aluminum is generally added as alum (A12S04'n H20). Ferric chloride and ferric sulfate are the most commonly used iron salts.

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Anionic polyelectrolytes can be used in combination with the aluminum and iron salts to improve settling, but may overly complicate the onsite treatment system.

The required dosages of aluminum and iron compounds are generally reported as molar ratios of trivalent metal salt to phosphate phosphorus. Molar ratios currently used in practice today range from 1.5:1 to 4:1, depending upon wastewater characteristics, point of addition, and desired phosphorus removal (20)(62).

Adding aluminum or iron salts to the raw wastewater prior to the septic tank has the advantage of using the existing septic tank for sedimentation (70). Aluminum or iron salts may be metered to the raw wastewater with a chemical feed pump activated by electrical or mechanical impulse. Mixing of the chemical with the wastewater is provided in the sewer line to the septic tank. The quantity of metal salt added to.the wastewater is dependent upon wastewater characteristics. Since the impulse to the feed pump may come from any of a number of household events, it is not possible to precisely adjust metal dosage. An average dose of salt based on estimated phosphorus discharge is most practical.

Addition of iron or aluminum salts following the septic tank may also be considered. A batch -feed system could be employed whereby a preset chemical dose is provided when the wastewater reaches a preset volume in a holding tank. Mixing may be provided by aeration or mechanical mixer, followed by a period of quiescence. Additional raw wastewater flow would be diverted to a holding tank until the precipitation-sedimentation cycle is completed. This system may be employed after the septic tank and preceding the intermittent sand filter.

The processes briefly described above represent a few of the many chemical treatment processes that might be considered for onsite treatment. They may be designed and constructed to fit the specific needs of the site, or purchased as a proprietary device. Storage and holding of chemicals must be considered in the design of these systems. Details on chemical storage, feeding, piping, and control systems may be found elsewhere (20)(62). Attention must be given to appropriate materials selection, since many of the metal salts employed are corrosive in liquid form.

b. Operation and Maintenance

Every effort should be made to select equipment that is easily operated and maintained. Nonetheless, chemical precipitation systems require semi-skilled labor to maintain chemical feed equipment, mixers, pumps,

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and electronic or mechanical controls. More frequent pumping of wastewater sludge or septage is also required. A rough estimate for semi- skilled labor is 10 to 25 man-hr per yr depending upon the complexity of the equipment. Conservative estimates on sludge accumulation dictate sludge or septage pumping every 0.5 to 2 years for an average home. Chemical requirements would vary widely, but are estimated to range from 22 to 66 lb/yr Al (10 to 30 kg/yr) or 11 to 33 lb/yr Fe (5 to 15 kg/yr) for a family of four.

6.6.3.4 Surface Chemical Processes

Surface chemical processes, which include ion exchange, sorption, and crystal growth reactions, have received little application in treatment of municipal wastewaters, but hold promise for onsite application (62). These types of processes are easy to control and operate; the effluent quality is not influenced by fluctuations in influent concentration; and periods of disuse between applications should not affect subsequent performance. Phosphorus removal on selected anion exchange resins has been demonstrated, but control of the process due to sulfate competition for resin sites has discouraged its application (71). Phosphorus removal by sorption in columns or beds of calcite or other high-calcium, iron, or aluminum minerals is feasible; but long-term experience with these materials has been lacking (2)(25)(72). Many of these naturally occurring materials have limited capacity to remove phosphorus, and some investi- gations have demonstrated the development of biological slimes that reduce the capacity of the mineral to adsorb phosphorus. Table 6-28 lists a range of phosphorus adsorption capacities of several materials that may be considered. The use of locally available calcium, iron, or aluminum as naturally occurring materials, or as wastewater products from industrial processing, may prove to be cost-effective; but trans- port of these materials any distance normally rules out their widespread application. Incorporation of phosphate-sorbing materials within intermittent sand filters is discussed more fully in Section 6.3.5.

The use of alumina (Al2O3), a plentiful and naturally occurring material for sorption of phosphorus, has been demonstrated in laboratory studies, but has not yet been employed in long-term field tests (75). Alumina has a high affinity for phosphorus, and may be regenerated with sodium hydroxide. Application of an alumina sorption process is similar to ion exchange, whereby a column or bed would be serviced by replacement on a routine basis. Costs for this process are high.

6.7 Wastewater Segregation and Recycle Systems

Chapter 5 discusses in detail in-house methods that may be employed to modify the quality of the wastewater. These processes are an important

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component of the onsite treatment system as they remove significant quantities of pollutants from the wastewater prior to further treatment and/or disposal.

TABLE 6-28

PHOSPHORUS ADSORPTION ESTIMATES FOR SELECTED NATURAL MATERIALS (73)(74)(75)a

Media Adsorption (mg P/100 gm media)

Acid Soil Outwash 10 - 35

Calcereous Soil Outwash 5 - 30

Sandy Soils 2 - 20

~-1 Alumina (A1203), 24-48 mesh 700 - 1500

a Based on maximum Langmuir isotherm values.

6.7.1 Wastewater Segregation

Among the wastewater segregation components which significantly alter wastewater quality are the non-water carriage toilets (Table 5-3), and the very low water flush toilets (Table 5-2) with blackwater contain- ment. Impacts of wastewater modification on onsite disposal practices are outlined in Table 5-9.

The graywater resulting from toilet segregation practices normally require some treatment prior to ,disposal (Tables 4-4 and 4-5 - "Basins, Sinks, and Appliances"). Treatment methods for graywater are similar to those employed for household wastewaters (Sections 6.2 to 6.6 and Figure 5-2), but performance data are lacking.

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Residuals resulting from the treatment or holding of segregated waste streams must be considered when evaluating these alternatives. Details of the characterization and disposal of these residuals appear in Chapter 9.

6.7.2 Wastewater Recycle

In-house wastewater recycle systems are treatment systems employed to remove specific pollutants from one or more wastewater streams in order to meet a specific water use objective (for example, graywater may be treated to a quality that is acceptable for flushing toilets, watering lawns, etc.). These systems are summarized in Table 5-6.

The impact of recycle systems on the quality of wastewater to be ultimately disposed is difficult to assess at this time owing to the absense of long term experience with these systems. It is likely that substantial pollutant mass reduction will occur in addition to flow reduction. As with segregated systems, the disposal of residuals from these processes must be considered in system evaluation.

6.8

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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