CHAPTER 6 :WRITING PROCESS

PHASE 2

Research, Organize and Compose

Presented by Business students at John Molson School of Business, Concordia:Nina Ansermino, Eliyah Assedou, and Stewart Sullivan

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PHASE 2

of Mary Ellen Guffey’s

3-X-3 Writing Process

Three Simple Steps to Writing

• Research data on your topic

• Organize text elements

• Compose a coherent article

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First Step to Writing:

Research

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First Step to Writing

• Before writing a message, collect all the information that you will need for your message

• This information will help shape the message that you are trying to convey to the reader

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First Step to Writing• To avoid an inaccurate message,

gather information that answers these primary questions:–What does the receiver need to know

about this topic?–What is the receiver to do?– How is the receiver to do it?–When must the receiver do it?–What will happen if the receiver doesn’t

do it?

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First Step to Writing

• When you are conducting your research, be sure to follow the right research method– Formal Research Method– Informal Research Method

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First Step to Writing

• Formal Research– Long reports and complex business

problems

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First Step to Writing

• Ways of conducting formal research– Access electronically : websites,

databases, CD’s, public records and organizations

– Search manually : through the library, book, magazine, news papers

– Investigate primary sources : interview, survey

– Experiment scientifically

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First Step to Writing• Informal Research– Used to find information for most routine

tasks : emails, memos, letters and reports

• Ways of conducing Informal Research– Look in files : find previous documents to

help you with content and format– Talk with your boss– Interview a target audience– Conduct an informal survey : conduct

phone surveys or questionnaires

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First Step to Writing

• Once you have gathered all the information you need through research, you can start finding other ways to generate ideas

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First Step to Writing

• Brainstorming : Creating a Cluster Diagram– In the centre, write your topic name and

circle it– Around the circle record any topic ideas

that come to mind– Circle each separate idea– Avoid censoring ideas, record everything– If ideas seem related, join them with lines

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First Step to Writing• Example of a Cluster Diagram

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First Step to Writing• Ideas for productive group

brainstorming– Define problem and create an agenda

that outline the topics to be covered– Establish time limits, short sessions are

best– Set a quota of ideas, quantity not quality– Encourage “out of the box” thinking

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First Step to Writing

–Write ideas on flip charts or on sheets of paper hung around the room

– Require each participant to contribute, accept and improve their ideas and the ideas of others

– Organize and classify the ideas, searching for the best

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Second Step to Writing:

Organize

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Second Step to Writing

• To ensure that your message is well organized:– Group similar items together– Ideas should follow a sequence

• Unorganized messages can leave the reader confused and will not emphasize the important points

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Second Step to Writing

• Organizing Ideas From a Cluster Diagram– Analyze the previous ideas– Cross out irrelevant ideas– Add new ideas that seem appropriate– Study these ideas for similarities– Group similar ideas into classifications– For further visualization, make sub-

cluster circles around each classification

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Second Step to Writing

• There are two other simple techniques that will also help you organize your data– The scratch list– An outline

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Second Step to Writing

• When developing your message, make a scratch list of the topic that want to cover

• Possibly make scratch list in margins of letter or memo that you are responding to

• Then, compose a message at you computer from your scratch list

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Second Step to Writing

• Use an outline to organize and group ideas to make a plan of what you want to write– Examples:

»Alphanumeric Outline»Decimal Outline

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Second Step to Writing• Format for Alphanumeric Outline– Title : Major Idea, Purpose– I. First Major Component• A. First subpoint

– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence

• B. Second subpoint– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence

– II. Second Major Component• A. First subpoint

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Second Step to Writing– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence

• B. Second subpoint– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence

– III. Third Major Component• A. First subpoint

– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence

• B. Second subpoint– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence

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Second Step to Writing

• Formal for Decimal Outline– Title : Major Idea, Purpose– 1.0 First Major Component• 1.1 First Subpoint

– 1.1.1 Detail, illustration, evidence– 1.1.2 Detail, illustration, evidence

• 1.2 Second Subpoint– 1.2.1 Detail, illustration, evidence– 1.2.2 Detail, illustration, evidence

– 2.0 Second Major Component• 2.1 First Subpoint

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Second Step to Writing– 2.1.1 Detail, illustration, evidence– 2.1.2 Detail, illustration, evidence

• 2.2 Second subpoint– 2.2.1 Detail, illustration, evidence– 2.2.2 Detail, Illustration, evidence

– 3.0 Third Major Component• 3.1 First Subpoint

– 3.1.1 Detail, illustration, evidence– 3.1.2 Detail, illustration, evidence

• 3.2 Second Subpoint– 3.2.1 Detail, illustration, evidence– 3.2.2 Detail, illustration, evidence

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Second Step to Writing• Each major category is divided into

two or more subcategories• Subcategories should consist of

examples, details, statists, case histories and other data

• Each sub-point should be more subdivided into more specific illustrations and details depending on the audience

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Second Step to Writing

• Tips for Making Outlines– define the main topic in the title– divide the main topic into major

components of classifications (three-five)– break components into sub-points– strive to make each component exclusive– use details, illustrations and evidence to

support sub-points

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Second Step to Writing

• Typical Major Components to Business Outlines– Letter or Memo• I. Opening• II. Body• III. Close

– Informational Report• I. Introduction• II. Facts• III. Summary

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Second Step to Writing

– Procedure• I. Step 1• II. Step 2• II. Step 3• IV. Step 4

– Analytical Report• I. Introductions• II. Facts / Findings• III. Conclusions• IV. Recommendations (if requested)

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Second Step to Writing

– Proposal• I. Introduction• II. Proposed Solution• III. Staffing• IV. Schedule, cost• V. Authorization

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Second Step to Writing

• Organizing Idea’s into Patterns– There are two organizational patterns

which provide a plan of action for typical business messages• Direct Pattern• Indirect Pattern

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Second Step to Writing• Direct Pattern for Receptive Audiences–When deciding on the message that you

wish to convey, you need to anticipate the audiences reaction

–Make sure you put the purpose of your message in the first or second sentence

– Explanations and details should follow the opening

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Second Step to Writing

• Direct Method is also called “front-loading” and has some benefits– Saves the reader’s time : messages that

take too long may lose the reader along the way

– Sets a proper frame of mind : learning purpose upfront helps reader put details into perspective

– Prevents frustration : poorly organized messages create negative impression of writer

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Second Step to Writing

• Works best with audiences that are likely to be receptive

• Typical business messages that follow the direct pattern : routine requests and responses, orders and acknowledgements, non-sensitive moms, email messages, information reports and informational oral presentations

• None have a sensitive subject matter

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Second Step to Writing

• Indirect Pattern for Unreceptive Audiences– A most suitable approach of writing if

you wish to leave the audience displeased or even hostile

– Only expose the message after you have delivered explanation and evidence

–Works well with bad news, persuasion and sensitive messages

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Second Step to Writing

• Typical business messages that use this method : letters / memos that refuse requests, deny claims and disapprove credit, persuasive requests, sales letters, and sensitive messages

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Second Step to Writing

• This method also has many advantages– Respects the feelings of the audience :

bad news is painful but this way they will be prepared for it

– Encourages a fair hearing : if main idea is read at the beginning, reader might not listen anymore

–Minimizes a negative reaction : negative reaction will be improved is news is delivered gently

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Third Step to Writing:

Compose

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Third Step to Writing

• After all of the researching and organization, it is time to begin composing your message

• Composing is made easier as you have all of your ideas organized and ready to work with

• It is made easier if you have a quiet working environment

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Third Step to Writing• As you begin, keep in mind that this is

a first draft, not your final copy• Get your thoughts down on paper and

go back and edit at the end• If you can’t think of the right word,

insert a substitute or type “find word later”

• If you handwrite, make sure to double space that you have room for change

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Third Step to Writing

• Effective Sentences : some basic sentence elements– Complete Sentences• Include subjects and verbs• They must make sense• Example - Your essay was very creative.

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Third Step to Writing

– Clauses and Phrases• Key building blocks to sentences• Clauses have subjects and verbs• Phrases do not• Example of clauses - Because she can sing,

they want her to be in the choir.• Example of phrases - The manager of Gap

Inc. sent an email to the staff.

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Third Step to Writing

• Independent and Dependent Clauses– Dependent clauses rely on independent

clauses for their meaning to make sense – Independent clauses can stand on their

own as they are grammatically correct– Example - Because you have all learned

how to write well, I think you should write an essay.

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Third Step to Writing

• In order for sentences to be as effective as possible, they must be short and concise

• Limit them to about 20 words or less• Break up complex sentences with

periods• However, make sure to still have a

balance between long and short sentences to keep the reader interested

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Third Step to Writing

• Emphasizing Important Ideas–Make use of bold, italics and underscore– Use vivid words : reader can picture

ideas– Label the main idea

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Third Step to Writing

– Place the important idea first or last in the sentence : that way the ideas will have less competition with surrounding words

– Place the important idea in a simple sentence or in an independent clause

–Make sure the important idea is the sentence subject

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Third Step to Writing

• Active-Voice– Sentences with active-voice verbs has

the doer of the action as the subject–We use active-voice for most business

writing– Used to make a blunt announcement– Example : Tyler made a major error in

the estimate

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Third Step to Writing

• Passive-Voice– In passive-voice sentences, the subject is

acted upon– Use to emphasize an action or recipient

of the action– Use to de-emphasize negative news– Use to conceal the doer of an action– Example : A major error was made in the

estimate

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Third Step to Writing• To tell if a verb is active or passive,

identify the subject of the sentence• Then decide whether the subject is

doing the acting or if it is being acted upon

• Another clue to identifying passive-voice verbs is that they usually include a “to be” helping verb such as is, are, was, were, being or been

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Third Step to Writing

• Drafting Meaningful Paragraphs– Discuss only one topic and connect other

ideas logically– Construct sentences and make into a

paragraph• Main sentence : primary idea of paragraph• Supporting sentence : provides evidence to

support main idea• Limiting sentence : acts as an opposition to

main idea but suggesting contrasting ideas

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Third Step to Writing

• Direct Paragraph Plan–Most business message use this

paragraph plan because it clarifies the subject immediately

– Useful when you must define, classify, illustrate, describe• I. Main Sentence• II. Supporting Sentences

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Third Step to Writing

– Can alter direct plan by adding a limiting sentence• I. Main Sentence• II. Limiting Sentence• III. Supporting Sentences

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Third Step to Writing

• Pivoting Paragraph Plan– I. Limiting Sentence (offers a contrasting

or negative idea and can be two sentences)

– II. Main Sentence– II. Supporting Sentence• Useful for comparing and contrasting• Use but or how to show a turn in direction

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Third Step to Writing

• Indirect Paragraph Plan– I. Supporting Sentence– II. Main Sentence• Allows you to build a foundation of reasons

before revealing the big idea to the audience• Explain your reasoning and then at the end

draw your conclusion• Appropriate when delivering bad news• Works well for describing cause followed by

effect

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Third Step to Writing

• Link Ideas to Build Coherence– Sustaining the key idea: repeating a key

expression or a similar one– Using pronouns (we, they, she, he) to

build continuity by confirming to the audience that the same thing under discussion is still being discussed

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Third Step to Writing

– Dovetailing sentence : when an idea at the end of one sentence connects with an idea at the beginning of the next sentence• Helpful with dense, difficult topics• Should NOT be over used

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Third Step to Writing

• Transitional Expressions– Helps reader anticipate what’s coming

next, reducing uncertainty and speed comprehension

– Non-verbal road signs to readers and listeners

– They can add or strengthen a though, show time or order, clarify ideas, show causes and effect, contradict thoughts and contrast ideas

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Third Step to Writing

• Transitional Expressions To Build Coherence

To add or Strengthe

n

To show time or order

To ClarifyTo show

cause and effect

To Contradict

To Contrast

additionally after for example accordingly actually as opposed to

again before for instance as a result butat the same

time

also earlier I mean consequently however by contrast

besides finallyin other words

for this reason

in fact conversely

likewise first that is so insteadon the

contrary

moreover meanwhile this means therefore ratheron the other

hand

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Third Step to Writing

• Compose Short Paragraphs for Readability– Business writers recognize the vale of

short paragraphs– Paragraphs with eight or fewer lines look

inviting and readable– If a topic cannot be covered in eight or

fewer lines, consider breaking it up into smaller segments

Links to External Information

• http://www.zenome.com/directory/index.php?parentID=007.063.006.999