chapter 8 biogeography. niche explains how so many species can coexist – as the...
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Chapter 8
Biogeography
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Niche Explains how so many species can coexist –
as the competitive-exclusion principle states that : Two species that have exactly the same
requirements CANNOT coexists in exactly the same habitat
Species that require the same resources can coexist by utilizing those resources under different environmental conditions.
Habitat complexity allows for this ie: a habitat they has, for example, varying
temps. or precip.
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Habitat vs. Niche WHERE a species lives, is its habitat,
WHAT type of conditions a species lives under is its ecological niche (the sum of all of the rages of tolerance under which it can survive – temp., climate, food sources)
If we want to conserve species, then we need to ensure all of the requirements of its niche are present
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Species Diversity Species are not uniformly distributed
over Earth’s surface. Biogeography - the large scale pattern
in the distribution of species Terrestrial species and ecosystems
change depending on soil, topography, elevation, etc.
Ecological Gradiant – Change in the relative abundance of a species over an area or a distance Pg. 134 in text
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Factors the INCREASE Biodiversity
Physically diverse habitat Moderate amounts of disturbance, ie: fire Small variation in environmental
conditions – temp. precip A high diversity at one trophic level
increases the diversity at another An environment highly modified by life,
ie: rich organic soil Middle stages of succession evolution
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Factors the DECREASE biodiversity Environmental stress Extreme environments Severe limitation in a supply of an
essential resource Extreme amounts of disturbance Recent introduction of an exotic species
(species from other area) Geographic isolation (a real or
ecological island)
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Early ideas regarding biogeography:1749Linneaus – 1st scientific botanist, father of taxonomyQuestioned: Why was there more variety in plant species in N. America and China and not Europe? They had similar climates ??
Explained by the Theories of Biogeography
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Alfred Wallace 1876 British Biologist Co-discoverer (w/ Darwin) – “Theory of
Evolution” Big idea -- World is divided into 6
geographical regions (realms), based on fundamental features of the animals found in those areas
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Wallace’s Realms: Biotic ProvincesRealm:
Major biogeographic regions of Earth that are based upon fundamental features of the plants and animals found in those regions
Taxa: Categories that identify groups of living organisms
based upon evolutionary relationships or similarity of characteristics (ex: species, families, orders)
Biotic Provinces: A geographical region (realm) inhabited by a
characteristic set of taxa, bounded by barriers that prevent the spread of those distinctive kinds of life to other regions.
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6 Biogeographic Regions Nearctic Neotropical Palaearctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian
Known as “Wallace’s Realms” Patterns in animals was the first step
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The main biogeographic realms for animals are based on genetic factors .
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The major vegetation realms are also based on genetic factors
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Relationship among living thingsAll living things are classified into
groups calledTaxa:
Categories that identify groups of living organisms based upon evolutionary relationships or similarity of characteristics (ex: species, families, orders)
KPCOFGS
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Realms Certain families are dominant Animals of these families fill particular
ecological niches Animals of different genetic stock fill the
same niche in other realms
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EXAMPLE:Large Mammalian Herbivores Bison N. America Capybara S. America Kangaroo Australia Giraffe S. Africa
All in the same family All fill the same niche, in differing areas
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Biotic Provinces Realms are now referred to as Biotic
Provinces A region inhabited by organisms with
the same taxa (sp. , fam. Order) Organisms share common genetic
heritage Provinces are bounded by barriers that
prevent spread to different regions and immigration from foreign species. HOW IS THIS EXPLAINED??
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Continental Drift All due to continental drift Wallace did not know this at the time
The unification of the continents (Pangea) allowed for genetic mixing. Enabled organisms to enter new habitats.
Separation, imposed genetic isolation and the evolution of new species.
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Convergent EvolutionGiven sufficient time
and similar climates in different areas, species similar in shape and form will tend to occur.
Example: Joshua TreeSaguaro CactusEuphorbiaAll tall with green
succulent stems that replace leaves. Not closely related – different families.
Evolution under similar desert climates – convergent evolution
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Divergent Evolution Organisms with the same ancestral genetic
heritage migrate to different habitats and evolve into species with different external forms and structures, but continue to use the same type of habitats
Ex) Ostrich (Africa), emu (Australia) and rhea (s. America) - all evolved separately, but retain some common characteristics.
Population divided, usually by geographic barrier. In open grasslands, a lg. bird that can run
quickly, feed on small seeds and insects had advantages over other organisms seeking the same food.
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Biomes Biogeographic pattern Kind of ecosystem Similar environments provide similar
opportunities for life and similar constraints
Lead to evolution of organisms similar in form and function.
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Island BiogeographyTheory of Island Biogeography
Islands have fewer species than continents The smaller the island, the fewer the species New species on an island are a result of migration
and/or evolution The farther the island is from the mainland, the fewer
the species
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Why?? Fewer habitats Some habitats are too small to support a
population large enough to survive Small populations are easily extinguished –
flood, fire Smaller the population, the greater the risk of
extinction Farther an island is from mainland, the harder
it will be for an organism to travel the distance A small island is a small “target” – less likely
to be found Islands tend to maintain a constant # of
species
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Adaptive Radiation:
The process that occurs when a species enters a new habitat that has unoccupied niches and evolves into a group of new species, each adapted to one of these niches.
Finches on the Hawaiian Islands – 16 species, each with specialized beaks for its food.
Ecological Island: An area that is biologically isolated so that a
species occurring within the area rarely mixes with any other population of the same species
Ex. – ponds, city park, small stand of trees in a field
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Earth’s BiomesThe Earth has 17 major biomes , each
with its own characteristic dominant shapes and forms of life.
Most biomes have been heavily altered by human action.
People have introduced exotic species to new habitats – sometimes creating benefits, often creating problems
Primary Rule: Unless there is a clear and good reason to introduce an exotic species into a new habitat, don’t do it.
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17 Major Biomes1. Tundras
- treeless plains that occur in the harsh climates of low rainfall and low average temperature- two types: artic tundra and alpine tundra- parts have permafrost: permanently frozen ground
2. Taiga or Boreal Forests- includes the forests of the cold climates of high latitudes and high altitudes- dominant life forms including moose and other large mammals, small flowering plants and trees
3. Temperate Dedicious Forests- occur in warmer climates that the boreal forest
4. Temperate Rainforest- moderate temperatures, over 250 cm/year of rain
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5. Temperate Woodlands- Slightly drier climate that the deciduous forests- fire is common and species adapt to it
6. Temperate Shrublands- also called chaparral: miniature woodlands
7. Temperate Grasslands- include many North American parries
8. Tropical Rain Forests- high average temperature and rainfall
9. Tropical Seasonal Forest and Savannas- high average temperature, low latitudes, abundant but seasonal rainfall
10. Deserts- The driest region that vegetation can survive.
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11. Wetlands- Include freshwater swaps, ,marshes and bogs – all have standing water
12. Freshwaters- Have phytoplankton and estuaries
13. Intertidal Areas- Areas exposed to alternately to air during low tide and high tide
14. Open Ocean- Also called the pelagic region
15. Bethos- Bottom portion of the ocean
16. Upwellings- Upward flows of ocean water
17. Hydrothermal Vents- Occur in the deep ocean were plate tectonic processes create vents