chapter 8-learning 8-1 1. discuss the importance of learning and the process of learning...

Chapter 8-Learning

8-11. Discuss the importance of learning and the process of

learning associations.2. Describe the general process of classical conditioning as

demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments.3. Explain the processes of acquisition, extinction,

spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.4. Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and

biological constraints in classical conditioning.5. Explain the importance of Pavlov’s work and describe how

it might apply to an understanding of human health and well-being.

8-1

Learning

Learning relatively permanent

change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

Behaviorism -The attempt to understand observable activity in terms of observable stimuli and observable responses

John B. Watson (1913) B.F. Skinner (1938)

8-1

Association We learn by association

Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

Associative Learning learning that two events occur together

two stimuli a response and its consequences 2 types (classical and operant conditioning) conditioning- the process of learning associations **associative learning is not the only way we learn we also learn from other peoples experience and

examples – called observational learning

8-1

Association

Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

8-1

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli

8-1

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

8-1

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian

physician/ neurophysiologist

Nobel Prize in 1904

studied digestive secretions

8-1


naturally, if you put food in a dog’s mouth he will salivate

Pavlov noticed the dogs began to salivate to associated stimuli

ex’s. sight of food, sight of lab worker who fed the dogs, sound of footsteps, etc.

Pavlov decided this needed to be looked into

cut a hole in the dogs cheek and attached a tube to measure salivation

8-1


Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

8-1

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)

8-1


Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two

stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an

unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

8-1

Behaviorism

John B. Watson (“Little Albert” Study)

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by

all schools of thought today

8-1


Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--

automatically and naturally--triggers a response (food)

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulus(salivation in response to food in mouth)

8-1


Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant/netural stimulus

that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (tone)

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus (salivation in response to the tone)

8-1


Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase where the neutral stimulus (NS)

becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Q: What is the relationship b/w the time interval b/w presentation of NS + UCS and the rate of acquistion???????

(must have stimulus contiguity – occur together in space & time)

8-1

Classical Conditioning Pavlov had to find out how much time should lapse

between the presentation of the NS and the US to better understand acquisition

found it would work up to ½ a second before the pairing

later studies concluded classical conditioning is biologically adaptive

ex. Snapping twig (CS) may signal a predator to a deer (US)

conditioning serves a function helps animals respond to cues that help it gain

food, avoid danger, locate mates, and reproduce

8-1

Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

8-1


Q: What happens when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS?

8-1


Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not

follow a CS ex. Dog stops salivating at sound of bell if bell

keeps happening and no food is given Note -Extinction doesn’t equal unlearning

--Length of extinction is det by strength of bond

in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

8-1


Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR

8-1

Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery

reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR ex. Dog salivates at the sound of the bell if he does not

hear a bell for several hours Renewal Effect-if response is extinguished in different

environment than acquired, response will reappear in original environment

Generalization tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar

responses ex. Dentists drill v. jeweler’s ex. Dog salivates in resp to windchimes ex. Child attacked by a Doberman may also fear a

Labrador Retriever Ex. “Little Albert”: rabbit, dog, Santa Claus mask,

Watson’s Hair

8-1


Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned

ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS

Ex. Dog stops salivating at windchimes and only salivates in resp to tuning fork

ex. Child attacked by a Doberman will not fear the friendly Labrador Retriever

8-1

Generalization

Drops of salivain 30 seconds

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Hindpaw

Pelvis Shoulder Frontpaw

Thigh Trunk Foreleg

Part of body stimulated

8-1

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

8-1

Are the laws of learning universal across all animals?

No, there are biological constraints on an organism’s capacity for conditioning

>>Biologically predisposed to learn associations that enhance survival

Cognitive & Biological Processes in CC

8-1

Cognitive ProcessesRobert Rescorla & Richard Wagner – role of expectancy of

UCS after pres of CS Also: why antabuse doesn’t work to treat alcoholismBio PredispGarcia & Koelling-taste aversion studies Rats attributed illness to flavored H20 not cage which was

radiated, also avoided even if not sickened until hours later Human taste averse to mussels Shows why CS & UCS don’t have to be tightly paired for

conditioning to take place

Cognitive & Biological Processes in CC (321-322)

8-1

1. Flooding - Exposing someone to harmless stimuli which they fear

Ex. Tying someone with arachnophobia down and dumping spiders on her – she will learn the spiders do not plan to harm her

usually unpleasant to the person being flooded

Classical Conditioning – Phobias & Therapy 3 Ways to use CC to Overcome Fears

8-1

Classical Conditioning – Phobias & Therapy

2. Counterconditioning- 2 types (Sys Desens & Aversive Cond)

Systematic Desensitization – pairing an unpleasant stimulus with an enjoyable stimulus>>Ex. Giving a child scared of a dog a twinkie every time he plays with a dog Teaching someone relaxation techniques then gradually exposing them to the

feared stimulus as their level of relaxation increases (progessive relaxation) Ex. Showing a photo of a spider as soon as she can relax, put a spider in a jar

across the room, as soon as she can relax

8-1

Classical Conditioning – Phobias & Therapy

Aversive Therapy (p692) - reverse of systematic desensitization (this therapy isn’t used to treat phobias but to condition aversion in subject to something they should avoid)

Other ClassicalCond Application:CC immunosuppression (Ader) (559)

8-1

8-2 Operant Conditioning

8-26. Describe the process of operant conditioning,

including the procedure of shaping, as demonstrated by Skinner’s experiments.

7. Identify the different types of reinforcers and describe major schedules of partial reinforcement.

.

8-2


Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely <<puzzle box>>

8-2


Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

CC involves respondent behaviorcaused by automatic responses to stimuli OC involves operant behavior behavior that operates on the

environment, producing consequences therefore, OC involves things we can

control

8-2


Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely <<puzzle box>>

8-2


B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

says rewarded behavior is likely to recur

developed behavioral technology

8-2

Operant Chamber

Skinner Box chamber with a

bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices to record responses

8-2

Operant Conditioning Skinner used the concept of shaping to

teach animals to do things Shaping - an operant conditioning

procedure where reinforcers are used to gradually guide an animal toward a desired behavior

Builds on existing behavior Reward successive approximations

towards final desired behaviorchaining

8-2


Reinforcer- any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

often times they are rewards, but they do not have to be

8-2


Snooze bar

8-2

Principles of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need (eg. food, H2O)

Conditioned Reinforcer (secondary reinforcer) stimulus that gains its reinforcing power

through its association with primary reinforcer (eg. money, praise, tokens in “token economy”

behavior modification program)

8-2

Principles of Reinforcement- Immediate v. Delayed

Immediate vs. Delayed 1. Immediate

works best for animals, also works w/ humans

2. Delayed will work with humans

8-2

Schedules of Reinforcement-Continuous v. Partial

Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each

time it occurs Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction

* 4 types of partial reinforcment schedules

8-2

Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified

number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding ex. Factory worker may be paid a $5 bonus

for every 1000 pieces he completes in a day resting reduces rewards overall output increases on this schedule

Schedules of Reinforcement-4 Types of Partial: FR, VR, FI, VI

8-2

Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses

like gambling (slot machine), fishing

very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability (resistant to extinction)


8-2

Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after

a specified time has elapsed response occurs more

frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near (ie. Getting mail, paycheck every 2 weeks)


8-2

Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz, bonus check @

Christmas


8-2

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

80

8-2

8-3 Operant Cond Cont’d & Observational Learning

8-3

8. Discuss the effects of punishment on behavior.9. Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and

biological predispositions in operant conditioning.10. Explain why Skinner’s ideas were controversial, and

describe some major applications of operant conditioning.

11. Describe the process of observational learning as demonstrated by Bandura’s experiments, and discuss the impact of antisocial and prosocial modeling.

.

8-3

Punishment

Punishment aversive event that decreases the behavior that it

follows not the same as negative reinforcement punishment does not teach alternate acceptable

behaviors may lead to anger and frustration Should be swift, sufficient & certain to be most

effective

8-3

Punishment8-3

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Map (EC Tolman) mental representation of the layout of one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have

learned a cognitive map of it>>contradicts Skinner’s discounting of cognitive processes

Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an

incentive to demonstrate it

8-3

Latent Learning

8-3


Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be

effective Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments

8-3


Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already

likes to do the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic

interest, as the motivation for performing the task

8-3

Operant Learning

Biological Predispositions and Constraints in Operant Cond

Again: Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

Hamsters can be op conditioned to dig using food as reinf b/c digging is a natural behavior when searching for food. Cannot cond hamster to wash face.

Pigeons flap wings to avoid shock (neg reinf) and peck for food reward(pos reinf) but won’t peck to avoid shock or flap wings to get food

8-2


Applications of Operant Conditioning Token Economy as a Behavior Modification System Adaptive Online TestingIn workplace: Boost productivity by making desired behaviors well-defined and achievable. Use

Immediate reinf. (IBM)

8-2

Operant vs Classical Conditioning

8-3

Observational Learning

Observational Learning (Albert Bandura Study) learning by observing others

Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Obs Learning and modeling start early -9 mo old – models

play behaviors14 mo old – models tv behaviorsLikely to imitate those we perceive as 1. similar to ourselves2. successful3. admirable

8-3


Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions

or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

8-3


ex. -Albert Bandura –guru of observational learning

-did the Bobo Doll Exp. found that children who see adult violently

beating an inflated doll are more likely to do so themselves than those who don’t

8-3


Applications of Bandura’s research lessons we learn as children are not easily unlearned as adults

Negative – Anti-Social Models Positive – Prosocial Models Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior

prosocial models may also have prosocial effects ex. Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

8-3


models are most effective when actions and words are consistent

children often learn hypocritical ways from parents Kids imitate hypocricy – doing what is done and saying

what is said To encourage children to read, read to them, let them

see you read, and surround them with reading materials

8-3

Observational Learning ≤18 most kids spend more time watching tv than in school

90% of houses – 3 or more tvs, exp Contradictory reports b/w what parents say their kids are watching and what they’re actually watching

Primetime – 3 viol acts/ hr, Sat a.m. 18/ hr

Before leaving elem sch, child has seen 8000 tv murders & 100,000 viol acts

Kids who watch 3 hours tv/ day @ 14, commit 5x aggressive acts b/w16-22 as 14 yr old who watches 1 hr or less

Violent acts correlate with the adoption of TV (1957-1974 violent acts doubled)

--more evidence: regions late in getting tv had a later homicide rate jump that correlated with TV adoption time

Biggest problem w/ tv could be opportunity costs (remember delinq daydream less – daydreaming as sub for impulsive behavior)

8-3

Observational Learning 700% inc in boys’ violent play after watching “Power Rangers”

8-3

chapter 8-learning 8-1 1. discuss the importance of learning and the process of learning...

Documents

pavlovian conditioning

association learning

importance of learning

types classical

observational learning

mouth neutral stimulus

recording salivation

sight of food