Chapter 9Chapter 9Change and ChoiceChange and Choice

Change and ChoiceChange and Choice• All All livingliving languages change languages change

– Affects Affects allall parts of language parts of language• Phonology, morphology, semantics, orthography…Phonology, morphology, semantics, orthography…

– Can come from within or from contact…Can come from within or from contact…• Mechanisms of drift, borrowing, pidgins, creoles…Mechanisms of drift, borrowing, pidgins, creoles…

– Can be welcomed or resisted Can be welcomed or resisted • Multilingualism, diglossia, nationalism, endangered languages…Multilingualism, diglossia, nationalism, endangered languages…

• Understanding change allows us toUnderstanding change allows us to– Discover relationships between languages...Discover relationships between languages...– Reconstruct ancient languages…Reconstruct ancient languages…– Address issues of language, dialect, and identity…Address issues of language, dialect, and identity…– Help to protect endangered languages….Help to protect endangered languages….

Diversification and ChangeDiversification and Change

• As speakers of a language spread outAs speakers of a language spread out– The language diversifies into dialectsThe language diversifies into dialects

• Wash vs warsh, coffee vs cawfee, fourth vs fawthWash vs warsh, coffee vs cawfee, fourth vs fawth

– Eventually the dialects become different languagesEventually the dialects become different languages• Two, deux, due, dos, dveTwo, deux, due, dos, dve, dva……, dva……

• As speakers of languages come into contactAs speakers of languages come into contact– They may They may borrowborrow from one another from one another

• Safari, pajama, tomato, garage, beisbol, falasika….Safari, pajama, tomato, garage, beisbol, falasika….

– In special situations they may create In special situations they may create newnew languages languages• Pidgins.Pidgins.

Relationships Between Relationships Between LanguagesLanguages

• Languages descended from common ancestorsLanguages descended from common ancestors– Are considered Are considered ‘‘familiesfamilies’’

• mother and daughter languagesmother and daughter languages

– Family trees of languagesFamily trees of languages• show branches and sub-branchesshow branches and sub-branches

• Language Language ‘‘isolatesisolates’’– Are considered sole survivors of ancient familiesAre considered sole survivors of ancient families

• Languages developed in contact situationsLanguages developed in contact situations– Are considered uniqueAre considered unique– Are difficult to classify.Are difficult to classify.

WhyWhy Languages Change Languages Change

• PrestigePrestige– shifting to (r) in NY after WWII (Labov)shifting to (r) in NY after WWII (Labov)

• NoveltyNovelty– bits, bytes, e-mail, mp3, imho, bits, bytes, e-mail, mp3, imho, ‘‘sup sup

• IdentityIdentity– locals vs tourists - vowels in Cape Codlocals vs tourists - vowels in Cape Cod

• ContactContact– Need to communicate for trade.Need to communicate for trade.

How Languages Change: How Languages Change: SoundsSounds

• Assimilation: illegal, immoral, irresponsibleAssimilation: illegal, immoral, irresponsible

• Dissimilation: Febyuary, English vowel shiftDissimilation: Febyuary, English vowel shift– from [a:] to [o] (from [a:] to [o] (stone went from [sta:n] to [ston])stone went from [sta:n] to [ston])

• Elision: [cloðz] to [kloz]Elision: [cloðz] to [kloz]

• Metathesis: [æsk] to [æks]Metathesis: [æsk] to [æks]

• Borrowing: Borrowing: – American [American [] borrowed from French] borrowed from French

– British English retained [British English retained [ʤʤ]]

How Languages Change: How Languages Change: Morphology/SyntaxMorphology/Syntax

• Misanalysis (redivision):Misanalysis (redivision):• an apron, a nother; -burgeran apron, a nother; -burger

• Regularization:Regularization:• dived; fishes; safaris, agendas, auditoriumsdived; fishes; safaris, agendas, auditoriums

• Loss (and replacement):Loss (and replacement):• adverbs, cases, 2nd person singular pronounsadverbs, cases, 2nd person singular pronouns

• Borrowing:Borrowing:– Nudnik, chutzpah, schlep, final Nudnik, chutzpah, schlep, final ‘‘notnot’’ from Yiddish from Yiddish

• I kid you not.I kid you not.

How Languages Change: How Languages Change: WordsWords

• Narrowing: Narrowing: ‘‘deerdeer’’ once meant any small animal once meant any small animal• Expansion: box meant specific wood boxExpansion: box meant specific wood box• Metaphorical shift: Metaphorical shift: ‘‘uptightuptight’’ ‘‘badbad’’ ‘‘sicksick’’ ‘‘gaygay’’• Shortening: dorm, exam, prof, taxi, cabShortening: dorm, exam, prof, taxi, cab• Coining:Coining:

– acronyms: laser, snafu, phatacronyms: laser, snafu, phat; bff; bff– blending (portmanteau): slithy, brunch, smog, blogblending (portmanteau): slithy, brunch, smog, blog; ;

frenemyfrenemy

• BorrowingBorrowing– tomato, potato, coyote, pajama, robot, safari, beisbol.tomato, potato, coyote, pajama, robot, safari, beisbol.

How Languages Change: How Languages Change: SpellingSpelling

• Symbol shift: Symbol shift: – <Þ> [<Þ> [θθ] and <đ> [ð] both replaced by <th>] and <đ> [ð] both replaced by <th>

• Spelling shift:Spelling shift:– <colour> changed to <color><colour> changed to <color>

– <light> changing to <lite><light> changing to <lite>

• Borrowed spellings:Borrowed spellings:– <debt> borrowed from Latin<debt> borrowed from Latin

• Old English spelling was <dette>.Old English spelling was <dette>.

Using Borrowed Words to Trace Using Borrowed Words to Trace Contact History in a LanguageContact History in a Language

• Chinese word for Chinese word for ‘‘foreignforeign’’::– Before 10Before 10thth century: {hai-} (sea) century: {hai-} (sea)

• {haitung} = crab apple{haitung} = crab apple

• {haizao} = date palm{haizao} = date palm

– 1010thth century thru 16 century thru 16thth century: {fan-} (foreign country) century: {fan-} (foreign country)• {fangie} = tomato{fangie} = tomato

• {fanshiliu} = pomegranate{fanshiliu} = pomegranate

• {fansu} = sweet potato{fansu} = sweet potato

– 1717thth century {yang-} (foreign country) century {yang-} (foreign country)• {yangchong} = onion{yangchong} = onion

• {yangjiang} = jerusalem artichoke.{yangjiang} = jerusalem artichoke.

How Fast Do Languages How Fast Do Languages Change?Change?

• glottochronology (lexicostatistics)glottochronology (lexicostatistics)• (Swadesh 1950)(Swadesh 1950)

– uses uses ““core vocabularycore vocabulary”” lists lists

– assumes fixed rate of retention in each listassumes fixed rate of retention in each list• 200 word list r=80%, 100 word list r=86%200 word list r=80%, 100 word list r=86%

– calculates when two languages separatedcalculates when two languages separated• (log of % of cognates times retention rate)(log of % of cognates times retention rate)

– often correlates with archaeological record.often correlates with archaeological record.

Reconstructing Ancient Reconstructing Ancient LanguagesLanguages

• If languages split apartIf languages split apart– related languages will be similar to one anotherrelated languages will be similar to one another

• Irish Irish ‘‘dodo’’ Welsh Welsh ‘‘daudau’’ Greek Greek ‘‘duoduo’’ Latin Latin ‘‘duoduo’’

• Italian Italian ‘‘duedue’’ Spanish Spanish ‘‘dosdos’’ French French ‘‘deuxdeux’’ German German ‘‘zweizwei’’

• Dutch Dutch ‘‘tweetwee’’ Swedish Swedish ‘‘tvatva’’ Danish Danish ‘‘toto’’ Old English Old English ‘‘twatwa’’

• Polish Polish ‘‘dwiedwie’’ Russian Russian ‘‘dvadva’’ Bengal Bengal ‘‘dvidvi’’ Persian Persian ‘‘dodo’’

• Lithuanian Lithuanian ‘‘dudu’’ Albanian Albanian ‘‘dydy’’…..…..– [d], [t], [dv] [tv], and [dz] [d], [t], [dv] [tv], and [dz]

– how to find the original sound?how to find the original sound?

– by using the daughter languagesby using the daughter languages

– to reconstruct the mother language(s)….to reconstruct the mother language(s)….

GrimmGrimm’’s Laws Law

• IE [p, t, k] IE [p, t, k] Germanic [f, Germanic [f, θθ, h, h]]– pater pater father, tres father, tres three, three,

centum [kentum]centum [kentum] hundred hundred

• IE [b, d, g] IE [b, d, g] Germanic [p, t, k] Germanic [p, t, k]– labium labium lip, duo lip, duo two, genus two, genus kin kin

• IE [bh, dh, gh] IE [bh, dh, gh] Germanic [b, d, g] Germanic [b, d, g]– bhrata bhrata brother, rudhiras brother, rudhiras red (etc.) red (etc.)

Steps in ReconstructingSteps in Reconstructing(see W/R pp. 121-124)(see W/R pp. 121-124)

• 1. Identify 1. Identify cognatescognates (as opposed to borrowings) (as opposed to borrowings)– ‘‘words related by descent from the same languagewords related by descent from the same language’’

• will have similar meanings & soundswill have similar meanings & sounds– e.g. German e.g. German ‘‘zweizwei’’ and English and English ‘‘twotwo’’

– e.g. German e.g. German ‘‘zehnzehn’’ and English and English ‘‘tenten’’

Example from Proto-Polynesian:Example from Proto-Polynesian:

• MaoriMaori HawaiianHawaiian SamoanSamoan FijianFijian

• taputapu kapukapu taputapu tabu.tabu.

Reconstructing: Step 2Reconstructing: Step 2

• 2. Develop a table of correspondence sets2. Develop a table of correspondence setsMM HH SS FF

tt kk tt tt

aa aa aa aa

pp pp pp bb

uu uu uu uu

Reconstructing: Step 3Reconstructing: Step 3

• 3. Use the correspondence sets to reconstruct the 3. Use the correspondence sets to reconstruct the ancestral phonemes (proto-phonemes)ancestral phonemes (proto-phonemes)

MM HH SS FF ancestralancestral

tt kk tt tt *t*t

aa aa aa aa *a*a

pp pp pp bb *p*p

uu uu uu uu *u*u

Reconstructing: Step 4Reconstructing: Step 4• 4. Chart the ancestral sounds4. Chart the ancestral sounds

consonantsconsonants

bilabialbilabial alveolar alveolar

stopsstops *p*p *t*t

vowels vowels

*u*u

**aa

You may need to go back and forth between steps 3 and 4 until the charts look right -- aim for good balance, logical lines, in the charts.

Reconstructing: Step 5Reconstructing: Step 5• 5. Develop rules to explain sound changes5. Develop rules to explain sound changes

– from ancestral to modern sounds from ancestral to modern sounds

Maori Hawaiian Samoan Fijian

*t k *p b

• Only create rules for sounds which change

• Create general rules from groups of similar rules.

Reconstructing: Step 6Reconstructing: Step 6

• 6. Reconstruct likely ancestral words6. Reconstruct likely ancestral words– use the rules and the ancestral (proto) sounds use the rules and the ancestral (proto) sounds

– how might each word sound in the protolanguage?how might each word sound in the protolanguage?

*tapu*tapu

(don(don’’t forget the * ).t forget the * ).

The Indo-European FamilyThe Indo-European Family

www.zompist.com/languages.html

Other Language FamiliesOther Language Families

Proto-Indo-European:Proto-Indo-European: Language & Culture Language & Culture

• soundssounds– *duwo, *treyes, *kwetores, *bhrater, *dhugeter*duwo, *treyes, *kwetores, *bhrater, *dhugeter

• morphologymorphology– three genders: male - female - neuterthree genders: male - female - neuter

– three pronoun numbers: single, plural, dualthree pronoun numbers: single, plural, dual

– eight caseseight cases

– complex tenses, modal verbscomplex tenses, modal verbs

• cultureculture– patrilocal residence.patrilocal residence.

Larger Groupings?Larger Groupings?Nostratic (Shevoroshkin 1964)Nostratic (Shevoroshkin 1964)

• Aquitanian (Proto Basque)Aquitanian (Proto Basque)• AfroAsiatic (HamitoSemitic)AfroAsiatic (HamitoSemitic)

– Semitic, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic, BerberSemitic, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic, Berber

• KartveloEusianKartveloEusian– KartvelianKartvelian– EusianEusian

• SumerianSumerian– EmeGirEmeGir– EmeSalEmeSal

• CaspianCaspian– BoreAltaicBoreAltaic

AltaicAltaic Boreal (Dravidian, Eskaleut, Yukaghir, UralicBoreal (Dravidian, Eskaleut, Yukaghir, Uralic

– IndoEtruscanIndoEtruscan IndeoEuropeanIndeoEuropean EtruscoRhaetic (Etruscan, Rhaetian)EtruscoRhaetic (Etruscan, Rhaetian)

Other Possible Groupings?Other Possible Groupings?

• Amerind, Na-Dene, Eskimo-AleutAmerind, Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleut– Greenberg & Ruhlen 1987Greenberg & Ruhlen 1987

• Dene-CaucasianDene-Caucasian– Shevoroshkin 1990.Shevoroshkin 1990.

PidginsPidgins

• Develop in contact situationsDevelop in contact situations– trading/colonizationtrading/colonization

• Are Are incompleteincomplete languageslanguages– Simplified grammarSimplified grammar– Reduced lexiconReduced lexicon– Limited subject matterLimited subject matter– NeverNever used as a first language (mother tongue) used as a first language (mother tongue)

• Are hard to place on family treesAre hard to place on family trees– hosthost’’s grammars grammar– intruderintruder’’s lexicons lexicon

• Rarely last beyond a generation or two.Rarely last beyond a generation or two.

CreolesCreoles• Develop from pidginsDevelop from pidgins

– Plantations, more stable speech communitiesPlantations, more stable speech communities

• Are Are completecomplete languages languages– Grammar is elaboratedGrammar is elaborated– Lexicon is expanded (using Lexicon is expanded (using ‘‘dominantdominant’’ language) language)– Subject matter is broadenedSubject matter is broadened– Can be first language of communityCan be first language of community

• Often seen as bad version of Often seen as bad version of ‘‘lexifierlexifier’’ language language– Haitian Kreol seen as Haitian Kreol seen as ““badbad”” French French– African American English seen as African American English seen as ““badbad”” English English

• May persist long-term, become standardizedMay persist long-term, become standardized• Swahili, Haitian Kreol, AAE, Tok Pisin, (English?). Swahili, Haitian Kreol, AAE, Tok Pisin, (English?).

Other Ideas About Pidgins & Other Ideas About Pidgins & CreolesCreoles

• Theoretical (innatist) Linguistics: Theoretical (innatist) Linguistics: – Develop from innate bioprogramDevelop from innate bioprogram

• Similarities to child languageSimilarities to child language

• Reveal the universal grammarReveal the universal grammar

• Historical Linguistics:Historical Linguistics:– Can be traced to SabirCan be traced to Sabir

• 10c southern French dialect (the lingua franca)10c southern French dialect (the lingua franca)

• Was spread throughout Mediterranean by sailorsWas spread throughout Mediterranean by sailors

• Then spread further by European colonization.Then spread further by European colonization.

How Ideas Can Affect How Ideas Can Affect PolicyPolicy

• the Ebonics controversythe Ebonics controversy– Oakland school board decides AAE is a CreoleOakland school board decides AAE is a Creole

• a different language from Englisha different language from English• ““genetically based and not a dialect of Englishgenetically based and not a dialect of English””

– Make sure you understand what this means!Make sure you understand what this means!

• descended from African languagesdescended from African languages– i.e., through pidgnization-creolization processi.e., through pidgnization-creolization process

• but treated as inferior variety of English in U.S.but treated as inferior variety of English in U.S.

– Board asks for Board asks for bilingual bilingual approach in schoolsapproach in schools• where teachers learn & use AAE to teach standard.where teachers learn & use AAE to teach standard.

Bilingualism & DiglossiaBilingualism & Diglossia

• Bilingualism: using two different languagesBilingualism: using two different languages– Who is expected to be bilingual (or multilingual)?Who is expected to be bilingual (or multilingual)?

• Everyone? Immigrants? Minorities?Everyone? Immigrants? Minorities?

– Stable vs transitional bilingualism?Stable vs transitional bilingualism?

• Diglossia: using two varieties of one languageDiglossia: using two varieties of one language– ‘‘highhigh’’ and and ‘‘lowlow’’ varieties varieties

• formality of situation determines choiceformality of situation determines choice– German & Swiss GermanGerman & Swiss German

– Classical & Colloquial ArabicClassical & Colloquial Arabic

– Marked & Marked & ‘‘StandardStandard’’ varieties of English?. varieties of English?.

Code SwitchingCode Switching

• Takes place at linguistic boundariesTakes place at linguistic boundaries– Segments are internally Segments are internally ‘‘correctcorrect’’

• ‘‘letlet’’s go to – la playas go to – la playa’’

• ‘‘Do you want that with – au jus?Do you want that with – au jus?’’

• Also at social/cultural boundariesAlso at social/cultural boundaries– Public and private domainsPublic and private domains

– Formal and informal situationsFormal and informal situations

– Can be used to mark identity, stance.Can be used to mark identity, stance.

National and Ethnic IdentityNational and Ethnic Identity• Language can be a source of divisionLanguage can be a source of division

– Basque & Spanish are two different languagesBasque & Spanish are two different languages• Basque is linked to ethnic prideBasque is linked to ethnic pride

• Language is used as an argument for independenceLanguage is used as an argument for independence

• Can language be a source of unity?Can language be a source of unity?– Czechoslovakia: one language, different culturesCzechoslovakia: one language, different cultures

• Language not enough to keep country unifiedLanguage not enough to keep country unified– People now think in terms of Czech and Slovak languages People now think in terms of Czech and Slovak languages

– China: many languages, all called ChineseChina: many languages, all called Chinese• Politics more important in keeping country unified.Politics more important in keeping country unified.

Standard LanguagesStandard Languages

• Carry more social prestigeCarry more social prestige• Are thought of as Are thought of as ‘‘more correctmore correct’’• Are preferred for formal occasionsAre preferred for formal occasions• The choice is usually The choice is usually ‘‘arbitraryarbitrary’’

– the speech of an the speech of an ‘‘upperupper’’ class class– or a group seen as powerful, respectedor a group seen as powerful, respected

• Note how the status of speakers can affect the status Note how the status of speakers can affect the status of a varietyof a variety

• English as a de-facto standard in the US.English as a de-facto standard in the US.

Official LanguagesOfficial Languages

• Recognized by the Recognized by the ‘‘statestate’’

• Are used in legal, political contextsAre used in legal, political contexts

• Are taught, used in schoolsAre taught, used in schools

• Possible to have more than onePossible to have more than one– Switzerland has 4 official languagesSwitzerland has 4 official languages

– India has 2 official languagesIndia has 2 official languages

• Does an official language create unity?…Does an official language create unity?…– English-Only movements in the US English-Only movements in the US

• Question: which variety of English?.Question: which variety of English?.

Geographic Variation:Geographic Variation:American English DialectsAmerican English Dialects

Mapping American English

Pop vs soda

PBS: Do you speak American?

The Current SituationThe Current Situation

• 5,000-6,000 5,000-6,000 ““languageslanguages”” in the world in the world– depending on definition of language, dialectdepending on definition of language, dialect

• some still some still ‘‘undiscovered,undiscovered,’’ undescribed undescribed

• some on the verge of extinctionsome on the verge of extinction

• what do we lose when we lose a language?what do we lose when we lose a language?

• is English becoming a world language?is English becoming a world language?– Advantages, disadvantages?.Advantages, disadvantages?.