Chapter 9Chapter 9Language Language

and and LiteratureLiterature

1. Foregrounding1. Foregrounding

The 1960 dream of high rise living The 1960 dream of high rise living soon turned into a nightmare.soon turned into a nightmare.

Four storeys have no windows left to Four storeys have no windows left to smashsmash

But in the fifth a chipped sill But in the fifth a chipped sill buttressesbuttresses

Mother and daughter the last Mother and daughter the last mistressesmistresses

Of that black block condemned to stand, Of that black block condemned to stand, not not

crashcrash..

The red-haired The red-haired woman, smiling, woman, smiling, waving to the waving to the disappearing shore.disappearing shore. She left the She left the maharajahmaharajah;; she left she left innumerable other innumerable other lights o’ passing lovelights o’ passing love in towns and cities in towns and cities and theatres and and theatres and railway stations all railway stations all over the world.over the world. But But Melchior she did not Melchior she did not leave.leave.

1.1 What is 1.1 What is ‘foregrounding’?‘foregrounding’? Frank Hakemulder & Willie van Peer:Frank Hakemulder & Willie van Peer: In a purely linguistic sense, the term In a purely linguistic sense, the term

'foregrounding''foregrounding' is used to refer to is used to refer to new information, in contrast to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form elements in the sentence which form the background against which the the background against which the new elements are to be understood new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.by the listener / reader.

In the wider sense of stylistics, text In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech a translation of the Czech aktualisaceaktualisace (actualization), a term (actualization), a term common with the Prague common with the Prague Structuralists. In this sense it has Structuralists. In this sense it has become a spatial metaphor: that of become a spatial metaphor: that of a foreground and a background, a foreground and a background, which allows the term to be related which allows the term to be related to issues in perception psychology, to issues in perception psychology, such as figure / ground such as figure / ground constellations. constellations.

The English term 'foregrounding' The English term 'foregrounding' has come to mean several things has come to mean several things at once: at once:

the the (psycholinguistic) processes(psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - by which - during the reading act - something may be given special something may be given special prominenceprominence

specific devicesspecific devices (as produced by (as produced by the author) located in the text the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader.on the reader.

an an analytic categoryanalytic category in order to in order to evaluate literary texts, or to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and explain their importance and cultural significance. cultural significance.

to to differentiatedifferentiate literature from literature from other varieties of language use, other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.or scientific reports.

Thus the term covers a wide area Thus the term covers a wide area of meaning. This may have its of meaning. This may have its advantages, but may also be advantages, but may also be problematic: which of the above problematic: which of the above meanings is intended must often meanings is intended must often be deduced from the context in be deduced from the context in which the term is used. which the term is used.

1.2 Devices of 1.2 Devices of ForegroundingForegrounding Outside literature, so the assumption Outside literature, so the assumption

goes, language tends to be goes, language tends to be automatized; its structures and automatized; its structures and meanings are used routinely. Within meanings are used routinely. Within literature, however, this is opposed by literature, however, this is opposed by devices which thwart the automatism devices which thwart the automatism with which language is read, processed, with which language is read, processed, or understood. Generally, two such or understood. Generally, two such devices may be distinguished, those of devices may be distinguished, those of deviationdeviation and of and of parallelismparallelism. .

DeviationDeviation corresponds to the traditional corresponds to the traditional idea of poetic license: the writer of idea of poetic license: the writer of literature is allowed - in contrast to the literature is allowed - in contrast to the everyday speaker - to deviate from everyday speaker - to deviate from rules, maxims, or conventions. These rules, maxims, or conventions. These may involve the language, as well as may involve the language, as well as literary traditions or expectations set up literary traditions or expectations set up by the text itself. The result is some by the text itself. The result is some degree of surprise in the reader, and his degree of surprise in the reader, and his / her attention is thereby drawn to the / her attention is thereby drawn to the form of the text itself (rather than to its form of the text itself (rather than to its content). Cases of neologism, live content). Cases of neologism, live metaphor, or ungrammatical sentences, metaphor, or ungrammatical sentences, as well as archaisms, paradox, and as well as archaisms, paradox, and oxymoron (the traditional tropes) are oxymoron (the traditional tropes) are clear examples of deviation. clear examples of deviation.

Devices of parallelismDevices of parallelism are are characterized by repetitive structures: characterized by repetitive structures: (part of) a verbal configuration is (part of) a verbal configuration is repeated (or contrasted), thereby repeated (or contrasted), thereby being promoted into the foreground of being promoted into the foreground of the reader's perception. the reader's perception.

Traditional handbooks of poetics and Traditional handbooks of poetics and rhetoric have surveyed and described rhetoric have surveyed and described (under the category of figures of (under the category of figures of speech) a wide variety of such forms of speech) a wide variety of such forms of parallelism, e.g., rhyme, assonance, parallelism, e.g., rhyme, assonance, alliteration, meter, semantic alliteration, meter, semantic symmetry, or antistrophe. symmetry, or antistrophe.

2. Literal language and 2. Literal language and figurative languagefigurative language

Friends, Romans and Friends, Romans and Countrymen, lend me your Countrymen, lend me your ears…ears…

Anthony in Shakespeare’s Anthony in Shakespeare’s

Julius CaesarJulius Caesar

2.1 Simile2.1 Simile

O, my luve is like a red, red O, my luve is like a red, red rose,rose,

That’s newly sprung in June;That’s newly sprung in June;

O, my luve is like the O, my luve is like the melodiemelodie

That’s sweetly play’d in tune.That’s sweetly play’d in tune.

Robert BurnsRobert Burns

(1759-96)(1759-96)

2.2 Metaphor2.2 Metaphor

All the world’s a stage,All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely And all the men and women merely players;players;

They have their exits and their They have their exits and their entrances.entrances.

And one man in his time plays many And one man in his time plays many parts,parts,

His acts being seven ages …His acts being seven ages …

William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare

(1564-1616)(1564-1616)

2.3 Metonymy2.3 Metonymy

There is no armour against There is no armour against fate;fate;

Death lays his icy hand on Death lays his icy hand on kings;kings;

Sceptre and CrownSceptre and Crown

Must tumble downMust tumble down

And in the dust be equal madeAnd in the dust be equal made

With the poor crooked Scythe With the poor crooked Scythe and Spade.and Spade.

James Shirley (1596-1666)James Shirley (1596-1666)

2.4 Synecdoche2.4 Synecdoche

They were short of hands at They were short of hands at harvest time. (part for whole)harvest time. (part for whole)

Have you any coppers? (material Have you any coppers? (material for thing made)for thing made)

He is a poor creature. (genus He is a poor creature. (genus for species)for species)

He is the Newton of this He is the Newton of this century.century. (individual for class)(individual for class)

3. Analysis of literary 3. Analysis of literary languagelanguage Foregrounding on the level of lexisForegrounding on the level of lexis Foregrounding on the level of Foregrounding on the level of

syntax: word order, word groups, syntax: word order, word groups, deviant or marked structuresdeviant or marked structures

Rewriting for comparative studiesRewriting for comparative studies MeaningMeaning ContextContext Figurative languageFigurative language

4. The language of poetry4. The language of poetry

Little Bo-peepLittle Bo-peep

Has lost her sheepHas lost her sheep

And doesn’t know where to find And doesn’t know where to find themthem

Leave them aloneLeave them alone

And they will come homeAnd they will come home

Waggling their tails behind themWaggling their tails behind them

Fair is foul and foul is fairFair is foul and foul is fairHover through wind and murky airHover through wind and murky air

Hark! The herald angels singHark! The herald angels sing

Glory to the newborn King!Glory to the newborn King!

Long burned hair brushesLong burned hair brushes

Across my face its spider Across my face its spider

Silk. I smell lavender Silk. I smell lavender

Cinnamon: my mother’s clothes. Cinnamon: my mother’s clothes.

4.1 Forms of sound 4.1 Forms of sound patterningpatterning RhymeRhyme AlliterationAlliteration AssonanceAssonance ConsonanceConsonance Reverse rhymeReverse rhyme PararhymePararhyme RepetitionRepetition

4.2 Stress patterning4.2 Stress patterning

Iamb: 2 syllables, unstressed + stressedIamb: 2 syllables, unstressed + stressed Trochee: 2 syllables, stressed + Trochee: 2 syllables, stressed +

unstressedunstressed Anapest: 3 syllables, 2 unstressed + Anapest: 3 syllables, 2 unstressed +

stressedstressed Dactyl: 3 syllables, stressed + 2 Dactyl: 3 syllables, stressed + 2

unstressedunstressed Spondee: 2 stressed syllablesSpondee: 2 stressed syllables Pyrrhic: 2 unstressed syllablesPyrrhic: 2 unstressed syllables

4.3 Metrical patterning4.3 Metrical patterning

Dimetre: 2 feetDimetre: 2 feet Trimetre: 3 feetTrimetre: 3 feet Tetrametre: 4 feetTetrametre: 4 feet Pentametre: 5 feetPentametre: 5 feet Hexametre: 6 feetHexametre: 6 feet Heptametre: 7 Heptametre: 7

feetfeet Octametre: 8 feetOctametre: 8 feet

4.4 Conventional forms 4.4 Conventional forms of metre and soundof metre and sound Couplets: 2 lines of verse, usually Couplets: 2 lines of verse, usually

connected by a rhymeconnected by a rhyme Quatrains: Stanzas of four linesQuatrains: Stanzas of four lines Blank verse: lines in iambic Blank verse: lines in iambic

pentametre which do not rhymepentametre which do not rhyme SonnetSonnet Free verseFree verse Limericks etc.Limericks etc.

4.5 The poetic functions 4.5 The poetic functions of sound and metreof sound and metre Aesthetic pleasureAesthetic pleasure Conforming to a formConforming to a form Expressing/innovating Expressing/innovating

with a formwith a form Demonstrating skill, Demonstrating skill,

intellectual pleasureintellectual pleasure For emphasis or For emphasis or

contrastcontrast Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia

4.6 The analysis of 4.6 The analysis of poetrypoetry Info about the poem:Info about the poem:

poet, period, genre, poet, period, genre, topic, etc.topic, etc.

Structure:Structure: layout, layout, number of lines, length number of lines, length of lines, metre, rhymes, of lines, metre, rhymes, sound effects, etc. plus sound effects, etc. plus

general commentgeneral comment on the on the poempoem

5. The language of 5. The language of fictionfiction From realism to From realism to

modernismmodernism

It had been an easy birth, but then It had been an easy birth, but then for Abel and Zaphia Rosnovski for Abel and Zaphia Rosnovski nothing had ever been easy, and in nothing had ever been easy, and in their own ways they had both their own ways they had both become philosophical about that. become philosophical about that. Abel had wanted a son, an heir who Abel had wanted a son, an heir who would one day be chairman of the would one day be chairman of the Baron Group. By the time the boy Baron Group. By the time the boy was ready to take over, Abel was was ready to take over, Abel was confident that his own name would confident that his own name would stand alongside those of Ritz and stand alongside those of Ritz and Statler and by then the Baron would Statler and by then the Baron would be the largest hotel group in the be the largest hotel group in the world. world.

Abel had paced up and down the Abel had paced up and down the colourless corridor of St. Luke’s colourless corridor of St. Luke’s Hospital waiting for the first cry, his Hospital waiting for the first cry, his slight limp becoming more slight limp becoming more pronounced as each hour passed. pronounced as each hour passed. Occasionally he twisted the silver Occasionally he twisted the silver band that encircled his wrist and band that encircled his wrist and stared at the name so neatly stared at the name so neatly engraved on it. He turned and engraved on it. He turned and retraced his steps once again, to retraced his steps once again, to see Doctor Dodek heading towards see Doctor Dodek heading towards him.him.

Jeffrey Archer: Jeffrey Archer: The Prodigal The Prodigal DaughterDaughter

There is the Hart of the Wud in the There is the Hart of the Wud in the Eusa Story that wer a stage every 1 Eusa Story that wer a stage every 1 knows that. There is the hart of the knows that. There is the hart of the wood meaning the veryes deap of it wood meaning the veryes deap of it thats a nother thing. There is the thats a nother thing. There is the hart of the wood where they bern the hart of the wood where they bern the chard coal thats a nother thing agen chard coal thats a nother thing agen innit. Thats a nother thing. Berning innit. Thats a nother thing. Berning the chard coal in the hart of the the chard coal in the hart of the wood. That’s what they call the stack wood. That’s what they call the stack of wood you see. The stack of wood of wood you see. The stack of wood in the shape they do it for chard coal in the shape they do it for chard coal berning. Why do they call it the hart berning. Why do they call it the hart tho? That’s what this here story tels tho? That’s what this here story tels of.of. Russell Hoban: Russell Hoban: Ridley WalkerRidley Walker

5.1 Fictional prose and 5.1 Fictional prose and point of viewpoint of view

I-narratorsI-narrators Third-person narratorsThird-person narrators Schema-oriented languageSchema-oriented language Given vs New informationGiven vs New information DeixisDeixis

5.2 Speech presentation5.2 Speech presentation

Direct speech (DS)Direct speech (DS) Free indirect speech (FIS)Free indirect speech (FIS) Indirect speech (IS)Indirect speech (IS) Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of

speech acts (NRSA)speech acts (NRSA) Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of

speech (NRS)speech (NRS)

55.3 Thought presentation.3 Thought presentation

Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of thought (NRT)thought (NRT)

Narrator’s representation of Narrator’s representation of thought acts (NRTA)thought acts (NRTA)

Indirect thought (IT)Indirect thought (IT) Free indirect thought (FIT)Free indirect thought (FIT) Direct thought (DT)Direct thought (DT) Stream of consciousnessStream of consciousness

5.4 Prose style5.4 Prose style

Authorial styleAuthorial style Text style Text style

5.5 Analyzing the 5.5 Analyzing the language of fictionlanguage of fiction

Lexis/vocabularyLexis/vocabulary Grammatical organizationGrammatical organization Textual organizationTextual organization Figures of speechFigures of speech Style variationStyle variation Discoursal patterningDiscoursal patterning Viewpoint manipulationViewpoint manipulation

6. The 6. The language of language of dramadrama Drama as poetryDrama as poetry Drama as fictionDrama as fiction Drama as conversationDrama as conversation

6.1 Analyzing dramatic 6.1 Analyzing dramatic languagelanguage Turn quantity and lengthTurn quantity and length Exchange sequenceExchange sequence Production errorsProduction errors The cooperative principleThe cooperative principle Status marked through languageStatus marked through language RegisterRegister Speech and silenceSpeech and silence

6.2 Analyzing dramatic 6.2 Analyzing dramatic textstexts ParaphrasingParaphrasing CommentatingCommentating Using theoriesUsing theories