chapter 9: language and thought. the cognitive revolution 19th century focus on the mind...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 9:Language and Thought
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The Cognitive Revolution
• 19th Century focus on the mind– Introspection
• Behaviorist focus on overt responses – arguments regarding incomplete picture of
human functioning• Empirical study of cognition – 1956
conference– Simon and Newell – problem solving– Chomsky – new model of language– Miller – memory
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Language: Turning Thoughts into Words
• Properties of Language– Symbolic– Semantic– Generative– Structured
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The Hierarchical Structure of Language
• Phonemes = smallest speech units– 100 possible, English – about 40
• Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning– 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes,
suffixes• Semantics = meaning of words and word
combinations– Objects and actions to which words refer
• Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences– Different rules for different languages
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Language Development: Milestones
• Initial vocalizations similar across languages– Crying, cooing, babbling
• 6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language
• 1 year – first word– similar cross-culturally – words for parents– receptive vs. expressive language
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Table 8.2 Overview of Typical Language Development
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Language Development:Milestones Continued
• 18-24 months – vocabulary spurt– fast mapping – over and underextensions
• End of second year – combine words – Telegraphic speech– Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)
• End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense– Overregularization
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Bilingualism:Learning More Than One Language
• Research findings:– Smaller vocabularies in one language,
combined vocabularies average– Higher scores for middle-class bilingual
subjects on cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness
– Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed
– 2nd languages more easily acquired early in life
– Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition
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Figure 8.4 Age and second language learning
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Can Animals Develop Language?
• Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees– Vocal apparatus issue– American Sign Language
• Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)– Chimpanzee - Washoe– 160 word vocabulary
• Sue Savage-Rumbaugh– Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi– Symbols– Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests
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Theories of Language Acquisition
• Behaviorist – Skinner
• learning of specific verbal responses• Nativist
– Chomsky• learning the rules of language• Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
• Interactionist – Cognitive, social communication, and
emergentist theories
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Figure 8.5 Interactionist theories of language acquisition
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Problem Solving: Types of Problems
• Greeno (1978) – three basic classes• Problems of inducing structure
– Series completion and analogy problems• Problems of arrangement
– String problem and Anagrams• Often solved through insight
• Problems of transformation– Hobbits and orcs problem– Water jar problem
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Figure 8.6 Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving
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Effective Problem Solving
• Well defined vs. ill defined problems• Barriers to effective problem solving:
– Irrelevant Information– Functional Fixedness– Mental Set– Unnecessary Constraints
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Figure 8.12 The tower of Hanoi problem
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Approaches to Problem Solving
• Algorithms– Systematic trial-and-error– Guaranteed solution
• Heuristics– Shortcuts– No guaranteed solution
• Forming subgoals• Working backward• Searching for analogies• Changing the representation of a
problem
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Figure 8.16 Representing the bird and train problem
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Culture, Cognitive Style,and Problem Solving
• Field dependence – relying on external frames of reference
• Field independence – relying on internal frames of reference– Western cultures inspire field
independence– Cultural influence based in ecological
demands• Holistic vs. analytic cognitive styles
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Decision Making:Evaluating Alternatives and Making Choices
• Simon (1957) – theory of bounded rationality• Making Choices
– Additive strategies– Elimination by aspects– Risky decision making
• Expected value• Subjective utility• Subjective probability
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Table 8.3 Application of the additive model to choosing an apartment
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Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
• The availability heuristic• The representativeness heuristic• The tendency to ignore base rates• The conjunction fallacy• The alternative outcomes effect
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Figure 8.18 The conjunction fallacy
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Understanding Pitfalls in ReasoningAbout Decisions
• The gambler’s fallacy• Overestimating the improbable• Confirmation bias and belief perseverance• The overconfidence effect• Framing
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Evolutionary Analyses: Flaws in Decision Making and Fast and Frugal Heuristics
• Cosmides and Tooby (1996)– Unrealistic standard of rationality– Decision making evolved to handle real-
world adaptive problems– Problem solving research based on
contrived, artificial problems• Gigerenzer (2000)
– Quick and dirty heuristics– Less than perfect but adaptive