Chapter 9

Organizing and Using Data

Using Data

• behavior therapy uses data to plan and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions

• current data on antecedents, behavior, and consequences are important

• baselines can provide information about seriousness of problems

• baselines serve as a reference for evaluating the effectiveness of therapy

Organizing Data

• arithmetic calculations can help summarize and clarify data

• the mean is the sum of responses divided by the number of observations

• the mean allows one to see the average response• percentages allow for better comparisons between

observations made in periods with different opportunities to perform

Organizing Data (continued)

• percentages adjust for differences in length of observation periods

• tables can organize data in ways that make changes or differences easier to evaluate

TablesTable 9.1 Frequency of cigarette smoking each day for 2 weeks of baseline

WeeksDay of Week One TwoMonday 19 15Tuesday 16 17Wednesday 16 18Thursday 17 16Friday 17 17Saturday 24 25Sunday 21 20

Types of Graphsgraphs are drawings that depict variations within a

set of data• line graphs plot time or sessions on the horizontal

axis and the dependent measure on the vertical axis

• bar graphs typically use the height of a rectangle to represent the strength of responses for different conditions

Types of Graphs (continued)• cumulative records or graphs depict the total

number of responses since observations were first made

• line graphs are used to show changes over a period of time under different conditions

• bar graphs are used to compare discrete categories• cumulative graphs more accurately depict changes

in rate of responding

Line Graphs

Bar Graphs

Cumulative Graph

Making a Graph

• graphs should help communicate accurate information about the data

• graphs should be easy to read• all elements of graphs should be clearly labeled• limit graphs to essential information• create a clear and fair picture of the data• use geometric figures (not colored lines) for data

points

Using Graphs

• graphs can be used to show effectiveness of therapy

• graphs can be displayed to serve as a reminder and to reinforce progress

• public display of graphs can encourage others to help

• public display of graphs can increase commitment

Ways to Assess a Program's Progress

• consult the individual• consult experts• evaluate graphs

– look at the general trend of change– compare data for current behavior under

intervention with baseline data– compare means of baseline and intervention

period

Problems in Graphic Analyses

poor baselines can create problems with graphic analysis

• high variability can make it difficult to conclude a change occurred

• trends in baseline behavior in the direction of anticipated change make it unclear whether the behavior changed due to intervention

• short baselines can provide too little information about trends

Troubleshooting: Discovering Why a Program Isn't Working

• did the functional analyses identify the relevant elements of the behavior and situation?

• were the best treatment techniques selected for the problem?

• was treatment delivered consistently?

Improving a Program: Managing Antecedents

• were prompts, models and instructions effective?• did you effectively narrow, eliminate, or break

chains of antecedents?• were CSs of a stimulus hierarchy properly

arranged and applied?

Improving a Program: Managing Behavior

• was the target behavior clearly defined?• were shaping procedures appropriate for the skill

level of the individual?• were prerequisite skills lacking?• was the person able to relax?• were clear images created with covert conditioning?• were appropriate alternative responses encouraged?

Improving a Program: Managing Consequences

• did reinforcers loose value?• were reinforcers applied appropriately?• did consequences change behavior as anticipated?• was extinction applied appropriately?• were lottery or group contingencies applied

appropriately?

Improving a Program: Procedural Aspects of the Program

• was assessment accurate and appropriate?• were data collection procedures overly difficult,

complex, or time consuming?• were program procedures implemented as

planned?• did those administering programs use techniques

in the same way?• was the contract mutually agreed on and clear?

Improving a Program: Procedural Aspects of the Program (continued)

• did outside factors disrupt the program?• did you observe problems with motivation or

training for the individual or those administering treatment?

Tips on Using Data and Improving Programs

• table data frequently • examine data for trends or excessive variability• construct neat and accurate graphs and tables• identify possible explanations for unusual patterns

of behavior• sketch graphs before constructing final version

Tips on Using Data and Improving Programs (continued)

• use appropriate labels to make graph self-explanatory

• do a full graphic analysis after about a week • when troubleshooting, keep written notes on your

evaluation• add data to graph periodically and evaluate

progress