chapter 9: presidential leadership

244

Big Decisions The president of the United States makes some of the nation’smost important decisions. The presidentsigns bills into law or vetoes them. Thepresident can also send troops into battle,and nominate individuals to serve in thecabinet or on the Supreme Court.

To learn more about how the presi-dent makes important decisions

and leads our nation, view the Democracy inAction Chapter 9 video lesson:

Presidential Leadership

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web siteat gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter9—Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

CHAPTER 9: PRESIDENTIAL LEADERSHIP 245

Many presidential powers are notspecifically mentioned in the Consti-tution. They have developed overtime, reflecting the changing needs of

the nation and personalities of the presidents. TheFounders crafted the office with caution, relyingon their understanding of human nature and theirexperience with kings and colonial governors.They also realized that the executive office wouldreflect the personal characteristics of the personchosen to serve.

The sources and limitations of presidentialpower have interacted throughout the nation’s his-tory. The presidency may have been defined by theConstitution; however, the immediate needs of thenation, the personal energy and influence of eachpresident, and the mandate, or expressed will of thepeople, have shaped the office of the presidency intoits modern form.

Constitutional PowersThe Founders made the president the headof the executive branch of the new nation-

al government. Having revolted against the hatedking of England, the Founders certainly did notwant to create their own king. At the same time,and for two major reasons, they did want a na-tional government with a strong executive.

Need for a Strong Executive First, theFounders knew that one of the main weakness-es of the Articles of Confederation was its lack ofan independent executive. Without an executivethe government had no one to carry out the actsof Congress. Moreover, this lack made it diffi-cult for the government to respond quickly toproblems and to enforce laws.

Second, many of the Founders distrusteddirect participation by the people in decisionmaking. The Founders feared that mass demo-cratic movements might try to redistributepersonal wealth and threaten private property.

Presidential PowersS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Clinton Punishes SenatorWASHINGTON, D.C., MARCH 1993

Democratic sen-

ator Richard

Shelby of Alabama

has learned the cost

of refusing a presi-

dential request. Pres-

ident Bill Clinton

had asked Democra-

tic legislators to exer-

cise restraint in criticizing his new economic plan.

Instead, Shelby blasted the president’s proposal

and embarrassed Vice President Al Gore on nation-

al television. Clinton then moved a $375 million

space program, and some 90 jobs, from Huntsville,

Alabama, to Houston, Texas. When the White House

later honored the University of Alabama’s national

champion football team, Clinton gave Alabama’s

other senator 15 free game tickets. Shelby, however,

got just one.

A political football

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsmandate, forum

Find Out■ Why do presidential powers tend to grow in

times of national emergency?■ What are the sources of and limits to the

powers of the president?

Understanding ConceptsConstitutional Interpretations Within the scope of constitutional limitations and powers,why does each president define the office differently?

President Reagan and Prime Minister Nakasone▲

244-251 CH09S1-860053 12/1/04 8:18 PM 45

Source: www.loc.gov/law.

Presidents of different countries around the world often hold similar powers. What differences are there between the powers of the presidents of the United States and France? Making ComparisonsMaking Comparisons

Argentina 4 years

6 years

5 years

6 years

6 years

5 years

4 years

Egypt

France

Mexico

Philippines

South Africa

United States

Direct election by the people

Nominated by the legislature and approved by an absolute majority of the people

Absolute majority of the people; direct election



Elected by the legislature from its members

Electoral College system

Country Term Election Method Cons

tituti

onal

Powers

Appr

ove l

egisl

ation

Appo

int ex

ecut

ive of

ficial

s

Appo

int ju

dges

Appo

int pr

ime m

iniste

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Dissolv

e leg

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ure

Susp

end r

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Cont

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Presidential Powers

COMPARING GovernmentsCOMPARING Governments

Consequently, they wanted a strong executivebranch that would protect liberty, private property,and businesses and would hold the legislativebranch, which the people could influence, in check.

Presidential Powers in Article II Article IIof the Constitution grants the president broad butvaguely described powers, simply stating that “TheExecutive Power shall be vested in a President ofthe United States of America.”

Sections 2 and 3 of Article II define the presi-dent’s powers.1 As commander in chief of thearmed forces, the president is mainly responsible

for the nation’s security. As head of the executivebranch, the president appoints—with Senate con-sent—heads of executive departments. The ChiefExecutive also conducts foreign policy, makingtreaties with the advice and consent of the Senateand appointing ambassadors. The president alsohas judicial powers—to appoint federal courtjudges, to pardon people convicted of federalcrimes except in cases of impeachment, or to re-duce a person’s jail sentence or fine. Working with

246 CHAPTER 9: PRESIDENTIAL LEADERSHIP

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

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the legislature, the president ensures that the lawsCongress passes are “faithfully executed.” The pres-ident delivers an annual State of the Union mes-sage to Congress, proposes legislation, and maycall Congress into special session when necessary.

Informal Sources of PowerThe Constitution’s list of presidential pow-ers is brief and simple. Yet, since Washing-

ton’s time, the president’s powers have greatlyexpanded. Today these powers come from severalsources in addition to the Constitution.

Personal Exercise of Power Over the yearsseveral presidents have added to the power ofthe presidency simply by the way they handled the job. Each president has defined the office inunique ways. Several presidents have enlarged thepowers of the presidency by their view and exerciseof power.

In 1803 Thomas Jefferson made the decisionto purchase the Louisiana Territory from France.Nothing in the Constitution, however, stated thata president had the power to acquire territory. Jef-ferson decided that the presidency had inherentpowers, or powers attached to the office itself.These were powers the Constitution did not

specifically define but that Article II implied. TheSenate agreed with Jefferson and ratified theLouisiana Purchase treaty.

Theodore Roosevelt expressed the broad viewof presidential power, explaining that it was boththe president’s right and duty to “do anything thatthe needs of the Nation demanded, unless such ac-tion was forbidden by the Constitution or by thelaws.” In a letter to a contemporary historian, Roo-sevelt explained:

“I have used every ounce of power there was in the office and I have not cared arap for the criticisms of those who spoke of my ‘usurpation’ of power; . . . I believethat the efficiency of this Government depends upon its possessing a strong central executive. . . .”—Theodore Roosevelt, 1908

Immediate Needs of the Nation During theCivil War Abraham Lincoln took action that causedpeople to call him a dictator. He suspended the writof habeas corpus and jailed opponents of theUnion without a trial or legal authority to do so. Heraised an army before getting Congress’s approval.He took illegal action against the South by blockad-ing its ports. Lincoln claimed the Constitution gave


Leadership StyleThis Currier and Iveslithograph shows theshelling of Fort Sumterin 1861. By sendingships to resupply thefederal fort inCharleston harbor,President Lincolnforced the South Car-olina militia to take ac-tion, thus beginningthe Civil War. How didLincoln’s actions re-veal his view of pres-idential power?

Presidential Decisions

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him the authority to do what was necessary to pre-serve the Union. In the end, the nation agreed withthe president.

Franklin D. Roosevelt used the power of thepresidency to expand the role of the federal gov-ernment in the nation’s economy. At a time ofsevere economic depression, Roosevelt persuadedCongress to create many new social and economicprograms and to set up new federal agencies torun them. After Roosevelt’s administration, Ameri-cans came to expect the president to take a firmhand in directing the nation’s economic as well aspolitical life.

In 2001 the terrorist strikes on New York Cityand Washington, D.C., transformed the presidencyof George W. Bush. He had gained office ninemonths earlier in a close, bitterly fought election.A poll at the time showed that 40 percent of thepublic did not believe Bush had won the electionfairly. The terrorist attacks, however, changedeverything. Americans now looked to the presi-dent for leadership. Bush responded by declaringthat “war on terrorism” would be the focus of hispresidency. Speaking to the nation, he vowed, “Iwill not yield; I will not rest; I will not relent inwaging this struggle for freedom and security forthe American people.” He soon gained sweepingnew authority from Congress to fight terrorism,

and his public approval ratings temporarily soaredto 90 percent.

Members of Congress sometimes complainabout presidents having too much power. YetCongress has often granted a president specialpowers, especially during emergencies. In 1964,for example, President Lyndon Johnson reportedthat two American destroyers had been attackedin the Gulf of Tonkin. To enable the presidentto cope with the situation in Vietnam, Congresspassed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution over-whelmingly on August 7, 1964. This resolutiongave the president authority to “take all necessarysteps, including the use of armed force” to protectAmericans in Southeast Asia. Johnson used thepowers this resolution granted to enlarge thewar in Vietnam as well as other parts of South-east Asia.

Mandate of the People All presidents like toclaim that their ideas and policies represent a man-date from the people. A mandate—strong popularsupport—is one of the greatest sources of powerfor a president. However, the president’s populari-ty ratings change almost daily. Most modern pres-idents, therefore, have learned to use all forms ofmass media to communicate their message to thepeople and gain popular support.

248

Perceptions of the PresidencyWhat repercussions might arisefor a president who does notmaintain a good relationship withthe media?

Past President Franklin D. Rooseveltexhibited a friendly informality thatmade Americans feel personally con-nected to the president. Here FDRspeaks to millions of Americans in oneof his frequent radio addresses knownas fireside chats.

Present Presidents hold televisednews conferences to communicate theirideas to Americans and maintain thepublic’s support of the presidency andits policies.

▲

▲

The President and the People

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Today, television gives presidents even greaterpower to convey their ideas and personalities di-rectly to the American people. The media calledPresident Ronald Reagan “the Great Communica-tor” partly because of his ability to deliver his mes-sage directly to the people through television.People often judge a president’s ideas according tothe personal appeal of the president on television,a fact presidents know very well and try to use totheir advantage.

Major newspapers and magazines also providea forum, or medium for discussion, for presidentialmessages. These media, in addition to televisionand radio networks, assign reporters to cover thepresident full time. White House staff membersmake sure the reporters receive a steady flow of in-formation about the president’s activities andideas. One of the staff ’s objectives is to create theimage of a president as an active, personable ser-vant of the people.

Limits on Presidential PowerThe Founders built significant safeguardsagainst the abuse of presidential power into

the Constitution. Both Congress and the courtshave powers that limit the president’s authority.Other factors not mentioned in the Constitutionalso affect the president’s actions.

Limitation by Congress The Constitutiongives Congress the power to pass legislation over apresident’s veto. A congressional override of aveto may limit a president’s effectiveness in carry-ing out a legislative program or in using executivepowers. In 1973 Congress overrode PresidentNixon’s veto of the War Powers Act that preventedpresidents from committing troops to combat formore than 60 days without congressional ap-proval. Congress felt that Nixon and previous pres-idents had abused their power as commander inchief. They had done so by involving Americansoldiers for prolonged periods in an undeclaredwar in Vietnam.

Other important limitations include the Sen-ate’s confirmation power, the power of the purse,and the power to impeach a president. Historical-ly, impeachment proceedings have been initiatedagainst three presidents. The House of Representa-tives impeached President Andrew Johnson in

1868, but the Senate acquitted him by a margin ofone vote. President Richard Nixon resigned in1974 before the impeachment charges could bebrought to the full House. After a short trial inearly 1999, the Senate acquitted President BillClinton on the two impeachment charges that hadbeen brought by the House.

Limitation by the Federal Courts The fed-eral courts have a constitutional power to limit a president. The case of Marbury v. Madison1

(1803) established the Supreme Court’s right to re-view legislative actions. During the Great Depres-sion, the Supreme Court ruled some of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal legislation un-constitutional.


See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Marbury v. Madison, page 761.

Checks and Balances Congress, believing that American involvement in the Vietnam Warwas an abuse of presidential power, passed theWar Powers Act in 1973 over a presidential veto.How was the War Powers Act an example of the concept of checks and balances?

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Youngstown Sheet and Tube Companyv. Sawyer Does the president have authority toact in areas of authority delegated to Congress ifCongress fails to act? Historically, a president’s ac-tion in such cases was not challenged until Con-gress passed legislation assuming its authority.

In 1952 President Truman, believing a strikeby steelworkers could threaten national security,ordered his secretary of commerce to seize and op-erate most of the nation’s steel mills. The presidentreported these events to Congress, but Congressfailed to take action. Congress had provided proce-dures for dealing with similar situations in earliercases.

Opposing the takeover, the steel mill ownerssued Secretary Sawyer, and the case eventuallyreached the Supreme Court. Justice Black, speakingfor the majority, said that there was no statute whichauthorized the president to take possession of themills. The fact that Congress had not exercised itspowers to seize the mills did not mean that the pres-ident could do so. He concluded,“The Founders ofthis Nation entrusted the lawmaking power to theCongress alone in both good and bad times.”

Limitation by the Bureaucracy The fed-eral bureaucracy sometimes limits presidentialpowers. Bureaucrats can obstruct presidents’ pro-grams unintentionally by failing to provide needed

information, by misinterpreting instructions, andby neglecting to complete a task properly. Bureau-crats have the discretion to interpret as they bestsee fit. At times their interpretations may not re-flect the president’s priorities either intentionallyor unintentionally.

Limitation by Public Opinion Public opin-ion can also limit a president. In 1968 public dis-satisfaction with President Lyndon Johnson’sconduct of the Vietnam War forced him not to runfor reelection. Without favorable public opinion, apresident cannot succeed in carrying out a politi-cal program. One of President Clinton’s an-nounced goals in his first administration was torestructure the health-care system. The adminis-tration began a major study of health care. Mean-while, all the interest groups that would be affectedbegan to raise questions. Public opinion eventual-ly derailed the changes.

The American people expect their presidentsto be symbolic leaders of the nation. They expectpresidents to always act with courage and dignity.If presidents fail to live up to these standards, thenation usually condemns their actions.

The Founders could not build into the Con-stitution provisions for regulating the moralcharacter of a president. Public opinion, especial-ly through the use of mass media, supports thechecks and balances that serve to limit the powersof a president.

Sect ion 1 Re v iewSect ion 1 Re v iew

Constitutional Interpretations Determine ifyou think there should be greater limits on thepresident’s power. Compose several catchyslogans supporting your view and create signsor buttons that might be used in a rally.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the

one below, list two or more constitutional limitsand three other limits on presidential power.

2. Define mandate, forum.3. Identify War Powers Act.4. In what three ways have former presidents

expanded the power of their office?5. Why, during Lyndon Johnson’s presidency, did

Congress pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?

Critical Thinking6. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion President

Wilson said the president “is at liberty, both in law and conscience . . . to be as big a man as he can.” Explain if this statement is fact or opinion.


Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Constitutional limits Other limits

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251

Background of the CaseIn the early 1970s several antiwar groups were

accused of plotting against the government. Presi-dent Nixon’s administration began using wiretaps,without a search warrant, to monitor citizens whomthe administration claimed were engaged in subver-sive activities. This case arose when a defendantwas accused of the dynamite bombing of an officeof the Central Intelligence Agency in Ann Arbor,Michigan. The defendant claimed the wiretap evi-dence used against him had been gathered illegal-ly. The government admitted it had not secured awarrant but claimed the wiretap was lawful underthe president’s power and duty to protect nationalsecurity. A United States District Court ruled the evi-dence was gathered illegally and had to be madeavailable to the defendant before his trial. The at-torney general filed suit to set aside the districtcourt’s order.

The Constitutional IssueIn reviewing the case the Court said:

“Its resolution is a matter of national concern,requiring sensitivity both to the Govern-ment’s right to protect itself from unlawfulsubversion and attack and to the citizen’sright to be secure in his privacy against unreasonable government intrusion. ’’—Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., 1972

The government argued that such surveillancewas a reasonable exercise of the president’s powerto protect domestic security. Further, the govern-ment claimed that judges would not have the ex-pertise in such complex situations to determinewhether there really was “probable cause.” Finally,the government argued that secrecy is essential indomestic security cases; informing a judge in orderto get a warrant would create the risk of leaks.

Questions to Consider1. Should domestic security cases be handled

differently than other types of crimes?2. What could be the consequences of allow-

ing the wiretapping in such cases without a warrant?

3. Does the government need a search warrant to wiretap in domestic security cases?

You Be the JudgeThe Fourth Amendment protects citizens from

“unreasonable searches and seizures” by requiringthe police to obtain a search warrant from a judge.In order to obtain the search warrant, the policemust show “probable cause” for the proposedsearch. Should the Court make an exception to thiswarrant requirement, as it has sometimes done inspecial circumstances? Analyze and explain.

Debating the CaseDebating the Case

The Constitution calls uponthe president to “preserve,protect and defend the

Constitution of the United States.” This duty includes protecting the government against subversive actions. Can the president, without asearch warrant, order electronic surveillance of people in order to pro-tect against domestic national security dangers? The case of United Statesv. United States District Court dealt with this issue.

CIA logo

United States v. UnitedStates District Court, 1972

CASES TO DEBATE

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When President Richard Nixon im-pounded funds, it raised a majorissue about the power and duties of apresident. What are the roles of the

president? There are seven key duties. Five of theseduties are based on the Constitution: serving ashead of state, chief executive, chief legislator, chiefdiplomat, and commander in chief. Two of thepresident’s key duties—economic planner and po-litical party leader—are not even implied in theConstitution, but have developed over time.

Head of StateAs head of state, the president representsthe nation and performs many ceremonial

roles. Serving as host to visiting kings, queens, andheads of governments, the president is the nation’schief diplomat. Other ceremonial duties are lessvital, but receive much attention. In a traditionthat dates back to President Taft, many presidentshave thrown out the first ball to begin the majorleague baseball season. Lighting the nationalChristmas tree, giving awards and medals, mak-ing public service statements on important issues,meeting public figures from musicians to busi-ness leaders are all considered a part of the role ofpresident.

The president is both head of state and chiefexecutive. In most countries these two duties aredistinct. One person—sometimes a king orqueen, sometimes a president without realpower—is the ceremonial head of state. Anoth-er person—a prime minister or premier—di-rects the government.

This difference is important. Much of themystique of the presidency exists because pres-idents are more than politicians. To millionsaround the world and to millions at home, thepresident is the United States. As a living sym-bol of the nation, the president is not just a sin-gle individual, but the collective image of theUnited States.

Roles of the PresidentS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Nixon Impounds FundsWASHINGTON, D.C., APRIL 16, 1973

Calling congression-

al spending waste-

ful and inflationary,

President Nixon has di-

rected cabinet members

not to spend moneys

appropriated by Con-

gress to fund some gov-

ernment programs he

opposes. By executive

order, the president has

withheld $8.7 billion earmarked for programs he be-

lieves are useless. Despite recent court rulings that a

president has no power to cut programs mandated

by Congress, Nixon claims the right to impound

funds because Congress “has not been responsible

on money.” Congress is considering legislation to

block the president’s action.


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsexecutive order, impoundment, reprieve, pardon, amnesty, patronage, treaty, executive agreement

Find Out■ How do the presidential roles of head of state,

chief diplomat, and commander in chief work to-gether to provide leadership in foreign relations?

■ What is the president’s role in the growth andstability of the American economy?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes How have presidents usedtheir political power to increase their policy-makingrole?

Nixon impounds program funds.

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Chief ExecutiveAs the nation’s chief executive,the president sees that the laws

of Congress are carried out. These lawsrange over a great many areas of publicconcern from Social Security, taxes,housing, flood control, and energy tocivil rights, health care, education, andenvironmental protection.

The executive branch employsmore than 2 million people to enforcethe many laws and programs Congressestablishes.1 The president is in chargeof these employees and the federal de-partments and agencies for which theywork. Of course, no president could di-rectly supervise the daily activities ofall these people. At best, presidents cantry to influence the way laws are imple-mented to follow their own philosophyof government.

Tools of Influence Presidentshave several tools to influence howlaws are carried out. One is executiveorders, or rules that have the force of law. Thispower is implied by the Constitution when itcharges the president with ensuring that “the lawsbe faithfully executed.” Presidents issue executiveorders to spell out many of the details of policiesand programs Congress enacts. For example, Pres-ident Carter used an executive order to put thou-sands of acres of land in Alaska under the controlof the National Park Service.

Another tool is making presidential appoint-ments. Besides appointing cabinet members, presi-dents appoint “with the advice and consent of theSenate” about 2,200 top-level federal officials. Theseofficials include agency directors, deputy directors,and their assistants. Presidents try to appoint offi-cials who share their political beliefs because theywant these officials to carry out their policies.

A third tool that presidents may use is theright to remove officials they have appointed.President Nixon, for example, fired his secretary

of the interior for opposing his conduct of the warin Vietnam. It is not always easy, however, to re-move a popular official, who may have congres-sional and public support. The former director of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, was a person withsuch support. He controlled and directed the FBIfor 48 years. Evidence indicates that several presi-dents had doubts about his capacities and conduct,but Hoover was too popular to fire. Hoover heldthe office of director of the FBI until his death onMay 1, 1972.

A fourth tool, used for a variety of reasons, en-ables a president to refuse to allow a federal de-partment or agency to spend the money Congresshas appropriated for it. This process is known asimpoundment of funds. Impoundment meansthat the president puts aside, or refuses to spend,the money Congress has appropriated for a certainpurpose. Presidents have practiced impoundmentfor years. In 1803, for example, President Jeffersondid not spend money Congress set aside for newgunboats until less costly designs were found. Mostimpoundments have been for routine matters.Money is appropriated; the need for spending


See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. For number of employees by department see United

States Data Bank, page 832.

Presidential Power In 1948, by executive order, PresidentHarry S Truman desegregated the armed forces, which affect-ed U.S. troops who later fought in the Korean War. Truman enhanced his presidential powers by taking decisive actionwithout Congress’s consent. Under which presidential dutydoes this action fall?

An Executive Order

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Presidents can use this power to influencethe course of government. For example,President Clinton appointed Justice RuthBader Ginsburg, who generally had moreliberal views than the justices appointed byprevious Republican administrations.

Reprieves and Pardons As chief ex-ecutive, the president also can grant “re-prieves and pardons for offenses against theUnited States.” A reprieve grants a postpone-ment of legal punishment. A pardon is a release from legal punishment. The individ-uals receiving presidential pardons general-ly have been convicted of federal crimes. In1974, however, President Gerald Ford grant-ed “a full, free and absolute pardon untoRichard Nixon” for any crimes the formerpresident might have committed in connec-tion with the Watergate scandal.

Amnesty Finally, the president may grantamnesty. Amnesty is a group pardon to peo-ple for an offense against the government.Amnesty usually applies to military person-nel. For example, Presidents Ford and Cartergranted amnesty to men who fled the draftduring the Vietnam War.

Presidential pardons and amnesties canbe controversial. Many people opposed Ford’spardon of Nixon and Carter’s amnesty fordraft dodgers. More recently, President Clin-ton issued several controversial pardons onhis last day in office. He pardoned a wealthybusiness leader indicted for fraud whose ex-wife had donated money to Clinton’s cam-paigns, and four embezzlers who hadsupported Hillary Clinton’s Senate campaign.

Chief LegislatorCongress expects the executive branch topropose legislation it wishes to see enacted.

President Eisenhower once wanted Congress to acton a particular problem he was concerned about.The White House, however, neglected to draft a billto deal with the situation. A member of Congressscolded the president’s staff: “Don’t expect us tostart from scratch on what you people want. …Youdraft the bills, and we work them over.”


Reactions to the President Gerald Ford enteredthe presidency hoping to pull a troubled country to-gether. His pardon of Nixon, though, outraged manyAmericans who believed the president should beheld accountable to the laws of the land. Why doyou think Ford pardoned Nixon?

Presidential Pardon

changes. Then the president impounds the money,and Congress agrees.

President Nixon tried to impound funds in theearly 1970s to eliminate a number of social pro-grams he did not favor. He impounded huge sumsof money—as much as $13 billion in a single year.Groups who stood to benefit from the impoundedprograms took President Nixon to court. Thecourt ordered the president to spend the appropri-ated money. Congress passed legislation to preventsuch wholesale impounding.

In addition, as chief executive the presidentappoints, with Senate approval, all federal judges,including the justices of the Supreme Court.

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The President’s Legislative ProgramUsually the president describes a legislative pro-gram in the annual State of the Union message toCongress. It calls attention to the president’s ideasabout how to solve key problems facing the coun-try. A detailed legislative program presented toCongress during the year reflects the president’svalues and political beliefs.

The president has a large staff to help writelegislation. This legislation determines much ofwhat Congress will do each year. The president’soffice also presents to Congress a suggested budgetand an annual economic report.

Taking office after the assassination of Presi-dent Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson called uponCongress to enact Kennedy’s programs:

“I believe in the ability of Congress,despite the divisions of opinions whichcharacterize our nation, to act—to actwisely, to act vigorously, to act speedilywhen the need arises. The need is here. The need is now.”—Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963

Congress responded by passing a host of newdomestic legislation the administration pro-posed.

Tools of Presidential LawmakingWhen the president and the majority of Con-gress are from different political parties, thepresident must work harder to influencemembers of Congress to support a particularprogram. Presidents often meet with senatorsand representatives to share their views withthem, and they appoint several staff membersto work closely with Congress on new laws.

Presidents may hand out political favorsto get congressional support. They may visitthe home state of a member of Congress tosupport his or her reelection. Or, a presidentmay start a new federal project that will bringmoney and jobs to a member of Congress’shome state or district.

An important presidential tool in law-making is the veto power. Each bill Congresspasses is sent to the president for approval.The president may sign the bill, veto the bill,or lay it aside. Presidents sometimes use the

threat of a veto to force Congress to stop a bill orchange it to fit their wishes. The threats succeedbecause Congress finds it very difficult to gatherenough votes to override a veto.

Unlike state governors, the president does nothave the power to veto selected items in a bill. Con-gress did attempt to give the president some powerover individual items by passing the Line Item VetoAct in 1996. President Clinton began to use the newpower almost immediately, but the controversiallegislation was challenged as soon as it went into effect. While the law survived the initial challenges,the Supreme Court agreed to hear appeals oftwo cases involving the new veto power in 1998. In Clinton v. City of New York1 the Supreme Courtstruck down the law as unconstitutional.


Political Strategy Soon after becoming president,Lyndon Johnson used his 22-year congressional expe-rience and skill as a legislator to persuade Congressto pass his “Great Society” programs. How does thecartoonist depict President Johnson’s abilitiesand success as chief legislator?

Presidential Lawmaking

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Clinton v. City of New York case summary, page 756.

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Economic PlannerThe president’s role as chief economic plan-ner has grown rapidly since Franklin D.

Roosevelt’s New Deal. The Employment Act of1946 gave new duties to the president. This law di-rected the president to submit an annual econom-ic report to Congress. The law also created aCouncil of Economic Advisers to study the econ-omy and help prepare the report for the president.In addition, the law declared for the first time thatthe federal government had the responsibility topromote high employment, production, and pur-chasing power.

Since 1946 Congress has continued to passlaws giving presidents more power to deal witheconomic problems. In 1970, for example, Con-gress gave President Nixon power to control pricesand wages. One year later, the president used thispower to put a 90-day freeze on all prices, rents,wages, and salaries. The law then expired and wasnot renewed.

The president also has the duty to prepare thefederal budget every year. The president supervisesthis work and spends many months with budgetofficials deciding what government programs to

support and what programs to cut back. The sizeof the budget, decisions about the budget deficit,and choices concerning where moneys will be allo-cated all affect the national economy.

Party LeaderThe president’s political party expects thechief executive to be a party leader. The

president may give speeches to help party mem-bers running for office or may attend fund-raisingactivities to help raise money for the party. Thepresident also selects the party’s national chairper-son. Often, the president helps plan the party’s fu-ture election strategies.

Presidents are expected to appoint members oftheir party to available government jobs. These ap-pointments ensure that supporters will remaincommitted to a president’s programs. Political patronage, or appointment to political office, re-wards those persons who support the presidentand the party during an election.

Being a political party leader can be a difficultrole for a president. People expect a president, ashead of the government, to represent all Ameri-cans. Political parties, however, expect presidents


One way to help society, whileearning money to pay for fur-ther education or training, is

by joining AmeriCorps. AmeriCorpsis a federal program that allowsyoung people to earn $4,725 in educational awards in return for ayear’s service to the nation. Volun-teers also receive living allowancesand health-care services.

In addition to many local projects, AmeriCorps offers two national programs. AmeriCorps-NCCCis a conservation organization forpersons ages 18 to 24. Members

live at regional campuses and workin teams on community needsprojects. AmeriCorps-VISTA is a pro-gram in which members work indi-vidually for other organizations tohelp them reach more people—bytraining community volunteers orsetting up neighborhood programs,for example. Members live in thecommunities they serve.

Activity1. Gather more information about

AmeriCorps by writing to the Cor-poration for National Service at1201 New York Avenue, NW,Washington, DC 20525, or visitits home page on the Internet.

2. Prepare a report to share yourfindings with the class.

AmeriCorps

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

Volunteer at work

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to provide leadership for their own political party.Sometimes these conflicting roles cause problems.When President Clinton compromised with theRepublican Congress to enact legislation in 1996,more liberal members of his own party criticizedhim. When a president appears to act in a partisanway, however, the media and the public can be critical.

Chief DiplomatThe president directs the foreign policy ofthe United States, making key decisions

about the relations the United States has withother countries in the world. In this role the presi-dent is the nation’s chief diplomat.

Because Congress also has powers related toforeign policy, there has been a continuing strugglebetween the president and Congress over who willexercise control of the country’s foreign policy.Presidents have an advantage in this struggle be-cause they have access to more information aboutforeign affairs than do most members of Congress.The administration sometimes classifies this infor-mation as secret. The Central Intelligence Agency(CIA), the State Department, the Defense Depart-ment, and the National Security Council (NSC)constantly give the president the latest informationneeded to make key foreign-policy decisions. Skilledpresidents use this information to plan and justifyactions they want to take. Members of Congress,who lack access to this information, often find it dif-ficult to challenge the president’s decisions.

In addition, the ability to take decisive actionhas greatly added to the power of the presidency inforeign affairs. Unlike Congress, where the individ-ual opinions of 435 representatives and 100 senatorsmust be coordinated, the executive branch is headed by a single person. In a national emergency,the responsibility for action rests with the president.

The Power to Make Treaties As chiefdiplomat the president has sole power to negotiateand sign treaties—formal agreements between thegovernments of two or more countries. As part ofthe constitutional system of checks and balances,however, two-thirds of the Senate must approve alltreaties before they can go into effect.

The Senate takes its constitutional responsibil-ity about treaties very seriously. Sometimes, theSenate will refuse to approve a treaty. After WorldWar I, the Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles,

the agreement to end the war and to make theUnited States a member of the League of Nations.More recently, in 1978, only after lengthy debatesand strong opposition did the Senate approve twotreaties giving eventual control of the PanamaCanal to the government of Panama.

The Power to Make Executive AgreementsThe president also has the authority to make exec-utive agreements with other countries. Executiveagreements are pacts between the president andthe head of a foreign government. These agree-ments have the same legal status as treaties, butthey do not require Senate consent.

Most executive agreements involve routinematters, but some presidents have used executiveagreements to conclude more serious arrange-ments with other countries. Franklin D. Rooseveltlent American ships to the British in exchange forleases on British military bases. At the time, theBritish were fighting Nazi Germany, but the Unit-ed States had not yet entered the war. Rooseveltknew that the strongly isolationist Senate wouldnot ratify a treaty. He therefore negotiated an exec-utive agreement.

Some presidents have kept executive agree-ments secret. To prevent this, Congress passed a lawin 1972 requiring the president to make public allexecutive agreements signed each year. Some presi-dents have ignored this law and kept secret thoseagreements they considered important to nationalsecurity. In 1969, Congress discovered that severalpresidents had kept secret many executive agree-ments giving American military support to SouthVietnam, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines.

Recognition of Foreign Governments Aschief diplomat the president decides whether theUnited States will recognize governments of othercountries. This power means the president deter-mines whether the government will acknowledgethe legal existence of another government and


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 9–StudentWeb Activities for an activity about the roles ofthe president.

GOVERNMENT

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have dealings with that government. Presidentssometimes use recognition as a foreign-policy tool.For example, since 1961, presidents have refused torecognize the Communist government of Cuba.This action indicates American opposition to thepolicies of the Cuban government.

Commander in ChiefPresidents can back up their foreign-policydecisions with military force when needed.

The Constitution makes the president commanderin chief of the armed forces of the United States.

Power to Make War The president shareswith Congress the power to make war. PresidentGeorge H.W. Bush received congressional ap-proval for military action in Iraq before he ordereda massive air strike in January 1991. His actionsprevented a serious constitutional question thatcould have divided the nation if the president hadsent troops without congressional approval as hewas prepared to do.

Several other presidents have sent Americanforces into action without a formal declarationof war. In the early 1900s, several presidents sentforces into Latin America to support cooperativeleaders. When President George H.W. Bush ordered an invasion of Panama to overthrow thedictator Manuel Noriega, he did not seek congres-sional approval. President George W. Bush’s waragainst terrorism, which began in 2002, involvedsending troops into Afghanistan and Iraq withouta formal war declaration. Congress has remainedsupportive of these military efforts. The issuecould become critical in the future, however, ifCongress demands withdrawal of troops from anarea of actual or threatened combat, and the pres-ident refuses to do so.

Military Operations and Strategy Gener-als, admirals, and other military leaders run thearmed forces on a day-to-day basis. The president,however, is responsible for key military decisions.President Washington exercised his constitutionalauthority over the military in 1794 when defiant


Presidential AuthorityMost modern presidentsdo not directly lead theirtroops as Washington did. How do modernpresidents indirectlylead their troops?

Early President In thispainting attributed to FrederickKemmelmeyer, PresidentGeorge Washington reviewsmilitia from four states sum-moned to put down theWhiskey Rebellion in 1794.

Modern President Presi-dent George H.W. Bush hadpower over the American mili-tary operations in OperationDesert Storm.

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Leading the Armed Forces

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whiskey distillers in western Pennsylvania refusedto pay the federal tax on their product. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton urged thepresident to take action against the rebels by mobilizing 15,000 state militia. Hamilton himselfrode west with the troops; Washington went to Carlisle, Pennsylvania, to inspectthem. When the troops arrived inPittsburgh, there was little opposi-tion to the demonstration of execu-tive strength.

Several presidents have comefrom a military background. Be-sides Washington, others have in-cluded Andrew Jackson, WilliamH. Harrison, Zachary Taylor,Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roo-sevelt, and Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Some presidents with little military experience have had tocommand military operations.Presidents Johnson and Nixonmade key military decisions in theVietnam War. President Carter senta special military force into Iran in1980 in an effort to free American diplomats whowere being held hostage there. In 2001, the terroristattacks on New York City and Washington, D.C.,forced President George W. Bush to launch a militarycampaign against terrorist groups that threatened theUnited States. He sent troops into Afghanistan, Iraq,the Phillippines, and other terrorist training areas.

As commander in chief, the president has theauthority to order the use of atomic weapons, adaunting responsibility. President Nixon said, “Ican walk into my office, pick up the telephone, andin twenty minutes 70 million people will be dead.”

The president has other duties as commander in chief. During a war the

president takes actions at home thatwill support the war effort. Congressusually grants the president specialpowers to do this. During WorldWar II, Franklin D. Roosevelt demanded and received from Congress power over price con-trols, gas and food rationing, and government control of industriesneeded to produce goods to con-duct the war.

The president may also usethe military to control serious dis-orders in the nation. Presidentshave used federal troops to putdown rioting in American cities.In case of a natural disaster, suchas a flood, the president may send

needed supplies or troops to help keep order.The roles as head of state, chief executive, chief

legislator, economic planner, party leader, chiefdiplomat, and commander in chief give the presi-dent broad powers. Today, the president of theUnited States is the most powerful single individ-ual in the world.

General Eisenhower’s militarycareer helped him win

the presidency.


Political Processes Imagine a typical day inthe life of a United States president. Preparean agenda for the president’s day. Be sure tokeep the seven duties of the president in mindwhen creating the agenda.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one

below, describe the different duties of the presi-dent’s roles as head of state and chief executive.

2. Define executive order, impoundment, reprieve,pardon, amnesty, patronage, treaty, executiveagreement.

3. Identify Council of Economic Advisers.4. Describe three foreign relations duties of the

president that are based on the Constitution.5. What officials may the president appoint?

Critical Thinking6. Understanding Cause and Effect What deci-

sions by a president affect the direction of thenation’s economy?


Head of State Chief Executive

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260

Interpreting Political Cartoons

Y ou have probably heard the saying,“A picture is worth a thousand words.”Political cartoonists use pictures to

present their opinions about issues.

Learning the Skill

Follow the steps below to interpret the car-toon concerning President Andrew Jackson.1. Examine the cartoon thoroughly. Read the

captions and the labels.2. Analyze each element in the cartoon. Presi-

dent Jackson is shown dressed as a king holding a “veto.” This represents Jackson’s liberal use of his veto power to defy the will of Congress. He tramples on the Constitutionof the United States, symbolizing the congres-sional fear that he was trying to impose dicta-torial rule.

3. Determine what point the cartoon is making.The cartoonist is comparing the president to a tyrant.

Practicing the Skill

The cartoon below was published in 1973.It concerns President Richard Nixon’s foreign policy. Answer these questions.1. What is going on in this cartoon?2. What point is the cartoonist making? 3. Is this a favorable or unfavorable view

of the president?

BORN TO COMMAND.

OFVE

TOM

EMOR

Y.

HAD

I BEENCON

SULTED.

KING ANDREW THE FIRST.

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Bring to class a copy of a political car-toon from a recent newspaper or magazine.Explain the cartoonist’s viewpoint and thetools used to make the point.

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Every president has a unique style of leader-ship. In the summer of 1981 PresidentRonald Reagan and his assistants had pre-pared complex legislation to cut federal

taxes. One day the president’s secretary of the trea-sury, Donald Regan, was working out details of thetax bill with key congressional leaders. At onepoint the president stopped by to see how thingswere going. “Would you like to join us?” the secre-tary asked with a smile. “Heck, no,” the presidentreplied, “I’m going to leave this to you experts. I’mnot going to get involved in details.”

Reagan’s response illustrated one aspect of hisleadership style. He focused on what his aidescalled the “big picture.” He let others in the cabinet,the EOP, and the White House Office work out thedetails of his policies. President Carter, Reagan’spredecessor, took a different approach. He spentmany hours studying the complex details of poli-cies and often became directly involved with his as-sistants in handling those details. Both presidentshad the same tools of power available to them.Each chose to use those tools differently in exercis-ing their leadership responsibilities.

Increased ResponsibilitiesWhen they wrote the Constitution, theFounders anticipated that Congress, not

the president, would lead the nation. At best, thepresident was to be the nation’s chief administra-tor and, in time of war, its commander in chief.Instead, over the years the powers and duties ofthe president have grown steadily. Today thepresident has the main responsibility for nation-al leadership. Public opinion surveys clearlyshow that Americans look to the president to ex-ercise strong leadership, to keep the peace, andto solve economic and social problems.

Sometimes presidents demonstrate leader-ship by introducing bold new ideas. PresidentTruman did this in 1948 when he announcedmeasures to end discrimination against

Styles of LeadershipS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3


President Promises Aid GRAND FORKS, NORTH DAKOTA, APRIL 23, 1997

Surveying the damage,

a shaken President Bill

Clinton promised the peo-

ple of Grand Forks nearly

$500 million to rebuild

their city, destroyed by

a record flood and fire.

“This is not an ordinary

disaster, if there is such a

thing,” the president said.

“I’ve never seen a commu-

nity this inundated.” The entire city, including

the downtown business district, was destroyed,

leaving some 50,000 people homeless. The presi-

dent’s pledge of aid is more than twice his

original request before visiting the scene. “The peo-

ple here are giving 100 percent, and we should, too,”

Clinton said. Congress is expected to approve the

president’s plan.

The Coast Guard

assisted Grand Forks.

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsde facto, covert

Find Out■ Why are communication skills so important to

being an effective president?■ What leadership quality do you think is most

important to the success of a president?Explain why.

Understanding ConceptsCultural Pluralism Why is it important for thepresident to be accessible to all of the diversegroups in the country?

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African Americans. More often, however, presi-dents demonstrate leadership by responding tocrises, problems, or opportunities as they occur.President Nixon took advantage of tensions be-tween the Soviet Union and China to open diplo-matic relations between the People’s Republic ofChina and the United States. President Clintonmade the difficult decision to intervene in a civilwar in Bosnia.

Leadership Qualities and SkillsWhat kinds of qualities and skills do presi-dents need to exercise leadership? Several

specific leadership qualities common to all goodadministrators can be identified. Many presidentsgenerally exhibit more than one of these qualitiesand skills. Several great presidents have had them all.

Understanding the Public A presidentmust know and understand the American people.The most successful presidents have had a genuinefeel for the hopes, fears, and moods of the nationthey seek to lead. Understanding the people is necessary to gain and hold their support.

Public support, in turn, can give a presidentreal leverage in influencing lawmakers. As a repre-sentative body, Congress is very sensitive to theamount of public support a president can gener-ate. When a president is popular, presidential pro-posals and policies are better received by Congressthan when the public holds a president in low re-gard. When Lyndon Johnson succeeded to the of-fice of president, Congress passed his Great Societylegislation. However, when Johnson became un-popular during the Vietnam War, he encounteredfierce opposition in Congress. His effectiveness asa leader was almost destroyed.

Failure to understand the public mood canbring disaster to a president. In 1932 when the na-tion was mired in the Great Depression, PresidentHerbert Hoover believed that the public did notwant government to take an active role in con-fronting the nation’s economic problems. Actually,with millions out of work, Americans wanted theirproblems solved by any means, including federalintervention if necessary. Hoover’s failure to un-derstand the mood and fears of the people costhim the 1932 presidential election. He lost toFranklin D. Roosevelt in a landslide.


Presidential RelationshipsWhich president’sleadership style doyou think is mosteffective? Explain.

Present President Clinton worked with keyRepublican leaders such as House Speaker NewtGingrich to find compromises across party lines thatwould enable key legislation to be passed.

Past President Lyndon Johnson’s leadership, called the “Johnson Treatment,” involved flattering, cajoling, andthreatening others to persuade them. Here Johnson discusses strategy with SupremeCourt Justice Abe Fortas.

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Styles of Presidential Leadership

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Ability to Communicate Successful presi-dents must be able to communicate effectively—to explain their policies clearly and to presenttheir ideas in a way that inspires public support.President Herbert Hoover met infrequently withthe press and only answered questions that hadbeen written in advance. In contrast, Franklin D.Roosevelt was a master at communicating. Heheld weekly press conferences during which heanswered all questions. After “fireside chats” onthe radio, he sometimes received as many as50,000 letters of public support a day.

A president who cannot communicate effectively may have difficulty exercising leader-ship. President Carter, for example, had problems in winning public support for his policies. President Reagan, on the other hand,was a very effective communicator. The pressdubbed him “the Great Communicator” becauseof his ability to sell his ideas to the public.

Sense of Timing A successful president mustknow when the time is right to introduce a newpolicy or to make a key decision as well as when todelay doing so. During the crisis in the former So-viet Union in the early 1990s, President Bushagreed that American economic aid would helpencourage democratic reforms there. He decidedto delay acting on this policy, however, until theSoviet political situation was clearer and more sta-ble. On the other hand, when some Soviet re-publics declared independence, Bush was quick torecognize their sovereignty.

Skillful presidents often use their assistants orcabinet secretaries to test a position on a controver-sial issue. One way is to deliberately leak informa-tion to the press. Another device is to have a cabinetsecretary or an aide make a statement about theissue or give a speech about it. If public and con-gressional responses are favorable, the presidentthen supports the position and may implement thepolicy. If reaction is unfavorable, the idea may bequietly dropped, or the president may begin acampaign to shape public opinion on the issue.

Openness to New Ideas Good leadershipalso requires the capacity to be flexible and open tonew ideas. As events in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union demonstrated in the early 1990s,situations can change rapidly in the modern

world. Consequently, an effective president mustbe receptive to new solutions to problems.

Presidents who are flexible are willing to en-gage in informal give-and-take sessions with theiradvisers. Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and JohnKennedy liked to hear their staffs argue differingpositions. In contrast, President Ronald Reagandid not tolerate serious dissension among his staff.

Ability to Compromise A successful presi-dent must be able to compromise. The nature ofpolitics is such that even the president must oftenbe willing to give up something in order to getsomething in return. Presidents who are successfulleaders are able to recognize that sometimes theymay have to settle for legislation by Congress, forexample, that provides only part of what theywant. Presidents who will not compromise risk ac-complishing nothing at all.

Perhaps the most tragic example of a presi-dent’s unwillingness to compromise is the experi-ence of Woodrow Wilson after World War I.President Wilson favored a League of Nations.1

The League was to be a global organization thatwould help prevent future wars. Wilson personallyattended the peace conference outside Paris to helpdraft a peace treaty that included the League.


See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Fourteen Points, page 822.

A United Military Throughout much ofU.S. history, the armed forces weresegregated. During World War II, nearly onemillion African American men and womenserved their country in segregated militaryunits. In 1948 President Harry S Trumanissued an executive order that forced themilitary to integrate African American andwhite units. African American and whitesoldiers first fought together during theKorean War.

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When the treaty came before the Senate forratification, several senators raised objections toparts of the plan for the League. President Wilson,however, would not even consider compromise.He refused to make any changes in the plan for theLeague to satisfy the senators’ objections. Instead,he began a speaking tour to build public supportfor his version of the League plan.

The tour ended suddenly and in disaster. Theexhausted Wilson suffered a stroke and was para-lyzed. By insisting on everything he wanted, Wil-son lost everything. The Senate rejected the treaty,and the United States never joined the League.

Political Courage A successful leader musthave political courage. Sometimes presidents mustgo against public opinion in taking actions theybelieve are vital to the nation’s well-being. To begreat leaders, presidents must at times have thecourage to make decisions they know will be un-popular with the voters.

President Lincoln made the greatest of suchdecisions during the Civil War. The early years ofthe war went very badly for the North. Despitesome Union victories, the casualty list was horren-dous, and the war’s end seemed nowhere in sight.As time passed, the war became increasingly unpopular, and the president came under intense


An Imperial PresidencyHere President Nixon makes a rare trip to theWhite House gates to greetcitizens. Nixon surroundedhimself with aides who usu-ally agreed with him, creat-ing an atmosphere in whichall opinions reflected hisown. Protected from criti-cism, Nixon grew increasing-ly isolated. Nixon thrived onthe power of the presidency,and critics dubbed him“King Richard.” How mightNixon’s attitude have limited his ability to govern?

An Inaccessible President

public and political pressure to negotiate a peacewith the South. Despite his belief that his decisionwould cause him to be defeated for reelection in1864, Lincoln decided to continue the war and topreserve the Union.

Presidential IsolationInformation and realistic advice are key in-gredients for successful decision making. As

presidents have become more dependent on theWhite House staff, however, the danger that theymay become isolated from the information andadvice they need has increased.

Special Treatment Modern presidents getvery special treatment. One adviser to PresidentJohnson noted:

“The life of the White House is the life of acourt. It is a structure designed for one pur-pose and one purpose only—to serve the ma-terial needs and desires of a single man. . . .He is treated with all the reverence due amonarch. . . . No one ever invites him to ‘gosoak your head’ when his demands becomepetulant and unreasonable.”—George Reedy, 1967

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In such an atmosphere, it is easy for presidentsto see themselves as deserving only praise and toconsider their ideas as above criticism.

Voicing Opinions Presidents may discouragestaff members from disagreeing with them or giv-ing them unpleasant advice. Lincoln once askedhis cabinet for advice on a proposal he favored.Every member of the cabinet opposed it—towhich Lincoln responded, “Seven nays, one aye;the ayes have it.”

No matter how well they know the presidentas a person, the office of president awes almost all staff advisers. A close adviser and friend ofPresident Kennedy put the feeling this way: “I sawno halo, I observed no mystery. And yet I foundthat my own personal, highly informal relation-ship with him changed as soon as he entered the Oval Office.”An assistant to President Nixon had similar feel-ings. He explained that even after work-ing closely with Nixon, “I never lost my reverent awe ofthe president, or thepresidency, whichfor me were synony-mous.” Such feelings can make it difficult for staff to present unpleasant news or voice criticism, which may mean that the president sometimes receives one-sided views of an issue.

Access to the President A veteran politicalobserver once noted that “power in Washington ismeasured in access to the president.” Top membersof the White House staff are closer to the presidentthan any other government officials. Presidentshave different styles of managing staff. FranklinRoosevelt liked having competitive staff full of dif-fering ideas, but Lyndon Johnson was less open todifferent ideas or dissent.

William Safire, one of the speechwriters forPresident Nixon, tells a story that shows what canhappen to the careless staffer who happens to dis-agree with the president. Safire once challenged theaccuracy of a statement that Nixon had made.

When Nixon insisted that he was correct, Safireproduced evidence to show that the president waswrong. As a result, Safire recalls, “For three solidmonths I did not receive a speech assignment fromthe president, or a phone call, or a memo, or a nodin the hall as he was passing by.”

Woodrow Wilson’s closest adviser, ColonelEdward House, admitted that he constantlypraised his boss. As for bad news, one presidentialadviser explained that the strategy everyone fol-lowed was “to be present either personally or by aproxy piece of paper when ‘good news’ arrives andto be certain that someone else is present when thenews is bad.”

The Dangers of Isolation Not only do topstaffers have easy access to the president, but they

also use their closeness to control others’access. Sherman Adams, Eisen-

hower’s chief of staff, hadgreat authority because

very few messages of any kind would go to Eisenhower without Adams first seeing them. H. R.Haldeman played

a similar role forPresident Nixon. Few

people, including mostother White House staff

members, got to see Nixonwithout Haldeman’s approval.

President Reagan at first dependedheavily on several top advisers. During

his second term, however, his new chief of staff,Donald Regan, severely restricted access to thepresident. One Reagan staffer called Regan the defacto president, meaning that although Regan didnot legally hold the office, he exercised power asthough he was president. Like Nixon before Water-gate, President Reagan became increasingly isolat-ed. This isolation may explain why the presidentapparently was unaware of the covert, or secret,activities his National Security Council staff in theIran-contra affair were conducting.

Perhaps in response to the events of theNixon and Reagan presidencies, former presidentBush tried to reverse the trend toward consolidat-ing power in the White House Office, but he had


The Oval Office

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Jimmy Carter

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference Jimmy Carter served as presi-dent of the United Statesfrom 1977 to 1981. After

leaving office, he continued tohelp mediate and solve interna-tional and domestic problems.For his efforts, Carter has beennominated seven times for aNobel Peace Prize and wasawarded one in 2002.

A year after leaving officeCarter founded the Carter Centerin Atlanta. The center focuses on global health, human rights,and democracy. Carter’s presi-dential experience, especially in negotiating foreign policy, has helped him resolve conflictsaround the world. In 1994 he

helped negotiate thereturn of deposedHaitian presidentJean-Bertrand Aristide to office.

He has traveled to Ethiopia,Sudan, North Korea, and Bosniato help the cause of peace.

Carter and his wife Rosalynnare working to eradicate a deadlydisease called guinea-worm dis-ease that affects people in India,Pakistan, and 16 African coun-tries. By teaching people to filtertheir water, the death rate fromthis disease has decreased.

At home, Carter and his wifeare involved in the Habitat for Hu-manity program. With thousandsof other volunteers, they helpbuild houses for the poor. Carter,who is now in his seventies, says,“To work for better understandingamong people, one does not haveto be a former president. . . .Peace can be made in the neigh-borhoods, the living rooms, theplaying fields, and the classroomsof our country.”

President Clinton brought plans for major do-mestic legislation to Washington in 1993. Dealingwith White House staff problems became a majordistraction, however. The president relied on keystaffers for input in frequent brainstorming ses-sions that often lasted for hours. Many sessionswere inconclusive, and the president’s agenda lostmomentum. To increase efficiency the presidentfound it necessary to reorganize the staff.

The Use of Executive PrivilegePresidents do not want the informationfrom their advisers to become public

knowledge. In order to keep White House discus-sions and policy making confidential, modernpresidents have sometimes used executive privi-lege. Executive privilege is the right of the presi-dent and other high-ranking executive officers,with the president’s consent, to refuse to provideinformation to Congress or a court.

Although the Constitution does not men-tion executive privilege, the concept rests on the

a very strong chief of staff who restricted access.Although most presidents appoint their closefriends to the White House staff, Bush appointedthem to the cabinet instead. As one presidentialaide explained,“The cabinet has played a very im-portant role in all major decisions. [The presi-dent] wants them to be running things—not theWhite House staff.”

Many observers believed that the leadershipchanges that Bush made were positive moves. Re-lying more on advice from officials who were notso close to White House operations gave the presi-dent access to a greater variety of views.

Staying in Touch Most political observerscaution, however, that despite a president’s best in-tentions, power will inevitably drift toward theWhite House. Keeping in direct touch with thepublic can be very difficult, if not impossible, for amodern president. The need for cabinet membersto protect the interests of their departments andthe constituent groups they serve always influencesthe advice they give.

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principle of separation of powers. Presidentssince George Washington have claimed that exec-utive privilege is implied in the powers granted inArticle II. Congress has disputed executive privi-lege, claiming that its oversight powers give it theright to obtain necessary information from theexecutive branch.

Limits of Executive Privilege Presidentshave long claimed that executive privilege also pro-tects their communication with other members ofthe executive branch. They argue that executiveprivilege is necessary if they are to get frank opin-ions and advice from their assistants.

Until recently, neither Congress nor the courtshad much need to question members of the WhiteHouse staff. These presidential aides traditionallyhad little to do with making policy. The variouscabinet departments made key policy decisions,and Congress could call department heads to testi-fy as part of its oversight function. Because morepolicy making has been taking place in the Execu-tive Office of the President, however, the constitu-tionality and limits of executive privilege havebecome an important question.

United States v. Nixon In 1974 the SupremeCourt issued a major decision on executive privilege.

President Nixon had secretly tape-recorded hisconversations with key aides about the Watergatecover-up. In United States v. Nixon, the Courtunanimously ruled that the president had to sur-render the tapes to the special prosecutor investi-gating the scandal.

Although the Court rejected Nixon’s claim ofexecutive privilege in this case, it ruled that be-cause executive privilege “relates to the effectivedischarge of a president’s powers, it is constitution-ally based.” The Supreme Court held the followingopinion:

“A President and those who assist him must be free to explore alternatives in the process of shaping policies and making decisions; and to do so in a waymany would be unwilling to express except privately.”—Chief Justice Warren Burger, 1974

The Court’s decision did not end the contro-versy over executive privilege. While many supportthe view that presidents need such privacy in theircommunications, others disagree. They argue thatby defending the constitutional basis of executiveprivilege, the Court has opened the way for evenmore secrecy in the White House. Although thepresident’s right of executive privilege is legallyrecognized, the question of how far it extends topresidential advisers remains unanswered.


Cultural Pluralism Suppose that you are the president’s chief assistant for legislativeaffairs. The president has asked for your advice on whether or not the opinions of interest groups should be a factor in makingpolicy decisions. Write a memo supportingyour position.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the

one below, identify six qualities of presidential leadership and give an example of each.

2. Define de facto, covert.3. Identify executive privilege, United States

v. Nixon.4. How do presidents test public opinion before

announcing new policies?5. How do good communication skills help a presi-

dent gain public support?

Critical Thinking6. Synthesizing Information How can a president’s

willingness to let staff express disagreements onissues help the president make better decisions?


Qualities Examples

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IN UNIT 3 you learned about the office of the president and the enormous responsibility and power granted theperson who holds this office. This activity will help you understand what qualities voters look for in a presidential candidate. By staging a mock presidential debate, you will also see the roles that campaign staffsand the media play in influencing the public’s choice of a presidential candidate.

The following excerpt from TIME

illustrates how seriously candidates andtheir staffs prepare for the important presidential debates.

W ith so much on the line, George Bushstarted prepping this summer and hashad occasional full-length rehearsals,

but the pace picked up the week before the first debate at his Texas ranch. New Hampshire SenatorJudd Gregg stood in for Kerry, and admaker MarkMcKinnon acted as the debate moderator. Bushpracticed behind a lectern and aides flashed cuecards that told him how much time he had left,just as officials will at the debate. Sessions werescheduled for 9 p.m. E.T. so that the early-to-bedBush could set his body clock to the precise time of the real thing.

All those Democratic-primary debates keptJohn Kerry in practice. The Kerry campaign hasguarded his debate preparation as closely as theydid his selection of a running mate, making surethat only a few advisers are in the room when hedrills. Among them: campaign manager MaryBeth Cahill; admaker and speechwriter BobShrum; and former Gore aide Ron Klain. Kerry'slongtime adviser Jonathan Winer is charged withmaking sure the candidate is prepared on everyissue. Bush is being played by Greg Craig, whowas a White House special counsel. Wife Teresa isoften on hand for the prep sessions, but onesource said she has little to say, at least in front ofthe others. [The first Bush-Kerry debate was held

on Sepetmber 30, 2004. Most politicalwatchers concluded that Kerry was the victor.]

— From TIME,October 4, 2004

PresidentialDebate

PresidentialDebate

Campaign paraphernalia advertises candidates’ standson issues.

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COLLECTION OF JANICE L. & DAVID J. FRENT

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Setting Up the Workshop1For this activity you will need a timer or stopwatch,

access to research materials such as current mag-azines and newspapers, and paper and pencils.

2 Divide the class into four work groups:

Group 1 Presidential candidate #1 and campaign staff (5–10 students)Group 2 Presidential candidate #2 and campaign staff (5–10 students)Group 3 Presidential candidate #3 and campaign staff (5–10 students)Group 4 Representatives from the media toask questions during the debate (5–8 students)

3 Choose a chairperson to organize your group’sactivities and a recorder to take notes.

4 If you are in groups 1 through 3, vote to selectone person to play the role of your presidentialcandidate in the debate. The rest of yourgroup’s members will make up the campaignstaff. The campaign staff’s responsibility is toprepare their candidate for the debate.

Identifying Debate TopicsVoters who watch presidential debates want to

find out where a candidate stands on issues that affect their lives and the nation’s well-being. As aclass, decide on four topics that you think are important to the voting public today. Use the categories below to help you narrow your choices.Choose one topic from each category. Sample topics are provided in parentheses. The debate willbe limited to the four topics you select.

1. Political issues (campaign reform, campaign financing)

2. Social issues (crime, education, Social Security, welfare)

3. Financial issues (cutting entitlement programs, the budget, housing)

4. Foreign policy issues (the Middle East, terrorism, NATO)

Researching Debate TopicsGroups 1, 2, and 3. Divide your group’s campaignstaff into four topic teams.

Group 4. Divide your group into four topic teams.

Follow these steps to complete the research needed for the debate:

1. Assign one of the four debate topics to each team.

2. Each team should do research on its topic outside class and bring its written notes to class.

3. Teams should present their findings to theirgroup in an oral summary.

Remember that the presidential candidates will be relying on their group’sresearch to help themcome out ahead in the upcoming debate, and the public will be relying on the media to help them choose the best candidate.

Senator John Kerry andPresident Bush shakehands during the first2004 presidential debate.

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BRIAN SNYDER/CORBIS

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Decide before the debate what position yourcandidate will take on each issue and stick to it.Remember, it is not necessary for everyone in yourgroup to agree on the issues. However, for the purpose of the debate, group members shouldpresent a united front. Before the debate, work together to create a name for your candidate’s political party and write a brief statement aboutwhy your candidate would make the best presidentbased on your group’s views and philosophy ofleadership.

Group 4. Media representatives should preparefor the debate by first discussing what they thinkthe voters will want to know about the candidatesand their stands on each issue. Your responsibilitywill be to draw out each candidate’s knowledgeand position on the four issues.

Work as a group toprepare a written list of four questions foreach topic and possible follow-upquestions. Divide the questions evenlyamong the group’smembers. Review thequestions to eliminateduplication and to makethem as concise as possible. Because of time constraints, choosethe most important ones to use first.

Preparing Your Candidate for the DebateGroups 1–3. To help prepare your candidate, ask him or her questions that you think might beasked during the debate. Think out each responsecarefully and coach your candidates so they will be well-prepared. Help candidates to make theirstatements more engaging by suggesting specificgestures, word emphasis, or expressions.

Campaign staffs will want to make sure thattheir candidates appear “presidential.” Make a listof qualities that you would like to see in a presi-dential candidate and help your candidate to pres-ent herself or himself in this manner. Candidatesshould come across as well-informed, decisive,and confident.

The first televised presidential debates occurredin 1960. They pitted a campaign-weary RichardNixon against a fit and witty John F. Kennedy.

In 1960, for the first time, radio and television played a major role in a presidential campaign. This advertisement for Sylvania television sets focuses on the1960 televised presidential debates.

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CO

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ON

OF

JAN

ICE

L. &

DA

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J. F

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NBC PHOTO

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Establishing Debate Ground Rules1. Work with your teacher to establish the time,

date, and rules for the debate.

2. Allow a total of 30 to 45 minutes to stage the debate.

3. Select one student to serve as a debate moderator and one to serve as a timekeeper.

4. Arrange the classroom so the three candidatesare at the front of the class. The media shouldsit facing the candidates.

5. Begin the debate with candidates introducingthemselves. Each should give the name of hisor her party and a general statement about whyhe or she would make the best president.

6. Media representatives should direct each ques-tion to only one candidate. That candidate willhave a maximum of one minute to respond.The other candidates, if they choose, will have30 seconds to respond to that same questionor rebut another candidate’s response.

After the debate, work as a class to analyze and evaluate each party’s performance. Hold a discussion by answering the following questions.

Questions for Discussion1. What topic seemed to pose the

most problems for the candidates? Examine why.

2. Do you think a presidential candidate’spersonal opinions always have to agreewith his or her political stand on anissue? Why?

3. According to TIME, presidential debatesare a “chance” for candidates to defineimportant issues in the election. Whatelse do you think voters look for during a debate?

4. How could each of the candidates have been more effective or more persuasive?

5. Based on this debate, which party andcandidate would you support and why?

Summary ActivitySummary Activity

Groups 1 through 3 will be awardedpoints by the teacher based on their knowledge of each issue, how well prepared their candidate is, and how consistent their candidate is in presentinga uniform stand on each issue.

Group 4 will be awarded points by theteacher based on its knowledge of the issues, question relevancy, and the use offollow-up questions where necessary to establish a candidate's stand.

Scoring the Debate

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Reviewing Key TermsOn a separate sheet of paper choose the letter ofthe term defined in each phrase.

a. executive order f. amnestyb. reprieve g. line-item vetoc. de facto h. treatyd. mandate i. coverte. pardon j. forum

1. expressed will of the people2. medium of discussion of presidential mes-

sages3. the power to accept or reject only parts of a

congressional bill4. a release of a group from legal punishment5. presidential decree that has the force

of law6. postponement of a person’s legal

punishment7. existing “in fact” rather than

officially or legally8. something that is secret

Recalling Facts1. Identify the five constitutional roles or duties

of the president.2. What are four limits on presidential power?3. What is the president’s role as party leader?4. Why can failing to understand the public’s

mood weaken a president’s power?5. How do presidents become isolated?

Understanding Concepts1. Constitutional Interpretations How did President

Lincoln’s actions during the Civil War violatesome people’s constitutional rights?

2. Political Processes When has Congress allowedexpansion of a president’s economic power?

3. Cultural Pluralism Why is compromise such avital ingredient for a president to be able tomaintain support of the people?

Critical Thinking1. Understanding Cause and Effect Use a graphic

organizer to show why President Johnsonchose not to run for re-election in 1968.

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 9Chapter 9

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 9–Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

CAUSE EFFECT/CAUSE EFFECTJohnson

chooses not to run for re-election

Presidential Leadership Skills

• Understanding of the public• Ability to communicate• Sense of timing• Openness to new ideas• Ability to compromise• Political courage

Presidential Powers

• Formal powers granted by Article II of the Constitution• Informal sources of power include the president’s personal excerise

of power, the immediate needs of the nation, and public mandates• Powers limited by Congress, the federal courts, the bureaucracy,

and public opinion

Roles of the President

• Head of State—Performs ceremonial roles• Chief Executive—Sees that laws of Congress are carried out• Chief Legislator—Proposes legislation• Economic Planner—Prepares federal budget• Party Leader—Supports party members• Chief Diplomat—Directs foreign policy• Commander in Chief—Commands armed forces of the United States

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2. Identifying Alternatives Howcould Congress have pre-vented President Jeffersonfrom purchasing theLouisiana Territory?

3. Drawing Conclusions Whatare the dangers in depend-ing only on the cabinet foradvice? Only on presiden-tial aides?

Analyzing PrimarySourcesGeorge Washington knew thathis two terms as the nation’sfirst president would set theprecedent for future office-holders. Washington’s FarewellAddress, delivered at the end of his second term in 1796,gives his ideas on presidentialduties and powers regardingboth domestic and foreign policy.Read the excerpt and answer thequestions that follow.

[On office terms:]“The period for a new election of a citizen to administerthe executive government of the United States being notfar distant, and the time actually arrived when yourthoughts must be employed in designating the person who isto be clothed with that important trust, it appears to meproper, especially as it may conduce to a more distinct expres-sion of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I have formed, to decline beingconsidered among the number of those out of whom a choiceis to be made.”

[On foreign policy:]“In the execution of such a plan, nothing is more essentialthan that permanent, inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others,should be excluded; and that, in place of them, just andamicable feelings towards all should be cultivated.”

1. What is the first precedent that George Wash-ington set in declining to run for another termof office? Why do you think he did this?


Chapter 9Chapter 9

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity1. According to the

cartoon, what dothe American people expect oftheir president?

2. How must presiden-tial candidates present themselvesto the public?

3. Are the personalqualities of presi-dential candidatesimportant in an election? Explainyour answer.

2. George Washington also warned against carry-ing grudges against other nations. What doesthis warning say about the developing powersof the presidency?

Participating in Local GovernmentJust like the president, amayor must be aware ofhow the people of the com-munity view his or her ac-tions or decisions. Suchopinion is often measuredthrough polls of a sample of thepopulation. Design your own poll, using questionsabout your mayor’s recent actions that impact yourcity. Use the questions to interview friends, family,and neighbors to find out the mayor’s popularity.Summarize your results in a chart or graph.

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chapter 9: presidential leadership

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