Chapter 9 Protection of the atmosphere

accoUnt the lcgitimate priority needs of developingcountries for the achievement of sustained economicgroWth and the eradication of poverty.

In this context panicular reference is also made toProgramme Area A of ~pter 2. of Agenda 2.I.

A Addressing the uncertainties: improving II.lcienlific bail

BaiI..ca. Concern about climate dIange andclimate variability, air pollution and ozone depletionhas created new demands for scienti6c, economic andsocial information to reduce the remaining uncertain-ties in these fields. Better understanding and predictionof the various propenies of the atmosphere and of theaffected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and theirinteractions with socio-economic faCtors, are needed.

~ The basic objective of this programme areais to improve the understanding of processes thatinfluence and are influenced by the Earth.s atmosphereon a global, regional and local scale, including, interalia, physical, chemical. geological. biological, oceanic.hydrological, economic and social processes; to buildcapacity and to enhance international cooperation; andto improve understanding of the economic and social

Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multi-dimensional endeavour involving various sectors ofeconomic activity. The options and measures describedin this chapter are recommended roc considerarion and.as appropriate, implementation by governments andother bodies in their efforts to protect the atmosphere.

It isrecognizcd that many of the issues discussed inthis chapter are also addressed in such internationalagrttments as the 1985 Vicnna Convention for thePfO(cction of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layeras amended, the 1992. Framework Convention onClimate Change. and other international, includingrcgional, instnlmcnts. In the case of activities coveredby such agreements, it is understood that therecommendations contained in this chapter do notoblige any government to take measures which exceedthe provisions of these legal instnImenrs. However,within the framework of this chapter, governmentsare free to carry out additional measures which areconsistent with those legal instruments.

It is also recognized that activities that may beundertaken in pursuit of the objeCtives of this chaptershould be coordinated with social and economicdevelopment in an integrated manner with a view toavoiding adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full

Industry is essential lor

production but die activitiesof Industry often resultin hannfulemissions into

!he atmO$pbere alNlenvironment. Indusbial

development should be

encouraged to minimize

ge

11,INMI tons of pollutant hangsover Mexico City. 83 percentof this brown haze is produced

by cars; the balance is made

up of human excrement,

which dries to dust, and

factory emissions.

technology were to remain constant and if overallquantities were to increase substantially. The need tocontrol atmospheric emissions of greenhouse andother gases and substances will increasingly needto be based on efficiency in energy production,transmission, distribution and consumption, and ongrowing reliance on environmentally sound energysystems, panicularly new and renewable sources ofenergy: All energy sources will need to be used inways that respect the atmosphere, human health,and the environment as a whole.

The existing constraints to increasing the environ-mentally sound energy supplies required for pursuingthe path towards sustainable development, particularlyin developing countries, need to be removed.

Objectives The basic and ultimate objective of thisprogramme area is to reduce adverse effects on theatmosphere horn the energy sector by promotingpolicies or programmes, as appropriate, to increasethe contribution of environmentally safe and soundand cost effective energy systems, particularly new andrenewable ones, through less polluting and moreefficient energy production, transmission, distributionand use. This objective should reflect the need forequity, adequate energy supplies and increasing energyconsumption in developing countries, and the need totake into consideration the situations of countries thatare highly dependent on income generated horn theproduction, processing and expon, and/orconsumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels forwhich countries have serious difficulties in switchingto alternatives, and of countries highly vulnerable toadverse effects of climate change.

consequences of atmospheric changes and of mitig-

ation and response measures addressing such changes.

Activities Governments at the appropriate level, withthe cooperation of the relevant United Nations

bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and

non-governmental organizations, and the private

se~'tor, should:

a Promote research related to the natural processesaffecting and being affected by the atmosphere, as wellas the critical linkages between sustainable develop-

ment and atmospheric changes, including impacts onhuman health, ecosystems, economic S<X:tors, and society

b Ensure a more balanced geographical coverageof the Global Climate Observing System and its

components, including the Global AtmosphereWatch, by facilitating, inter alia, the establishmentand operation of additional systematic observation

stations, and by contributing to the development,utilization and accessibility of these databases;c Promote cooperation in

i the development of early dete~-tion systems concern-

ing changes and fluctuations in the atmosphere, andii the establishment and improvement of capabilities

to predict such changes and fluctuations and toassess the resulting environmental and socio-economic impacts;d Cooperate in research to develop methodologies

and identify threshold levels of atmospheric

pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels of

greenhouse gas concentrations, that would causedangerous anthrop<)genic interference with the

climate system and the environment as a whole, andthe associated rates of change that would not allow

ecosystems to adapt naturally .8 Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientificcapacities, the exchange of scientific data and infotm-ation, and the facilitation of the participation and

training of experts and technical staff, particularly

of developing countries, in the fields of research, data

assembly, collection and assessment, and systematicobservation related to the atmosphere.

B. Promoting sustainable development

Activities Governments at the appropriate level,with the cooperation of the relevant United Nationsbodie-.. and, as appropriate, intergovernmental andnon-governmental organizations, and the privatesector, should:a Cooperate in identifying and developingeconomically viable, and environmentally soundenergy sources to promote the availability of in-'-Teased energy supplies to suppon sustainable develop-ment efforts, in panicular in developing countries;b Promote the development at the national level ofappropriate methodologies for making integratedenergy, environment and economic policy decisions for

A Energy development, efficiency and consumptionBasisforadion F.nergy is essential to economic andsocial development and improved quality of life. Muchof the world's energy, however, is currently producedand consumed in ways that could not be sustained if

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. Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost effective,more efficient, less polluting and safer transportsystems, particularly integrated rural and urbanmass transit, as we.II as environmentally sound roadnetworks, taking into account the needs forsustainable social, economic and developmentpriorities, particularly in developing countries;b Facilitate at the international, regional, subregionaland national levels the access to and the transfer ofsafe, efficient, including resource-efficient, and lesspolluting transport technologies, particularly to thedeveloping countries, including the implementation of

appropriate training programmes;C Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts atcollecting, analysing and exchanging relevantinformation on the relation between environmentand transport, with particular emphasis on thesystematic observation of emissions and thedevelopment of a transport database;d In accordance with national socio-economicdevelopment and environment priorities, evaluateand, as appropriate, promote cost effective policiesor programmes, including administrative, socialand economic measures, in order to encourage useof transportation modes that minimize adverseimpacts on the atmosphere;e Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanismsto integrate transport planning strategies and urbanand regional settlement planning strategies, with a viewto reducing the environmental impacts of transport;f Srudy, within the framework of the United Nationsand its regional economic commissions, the feasibilityof convening regional conferences on transport andthe environment.

UNCED confirmed thatenvironmental problemsmust be addressed in aglobal context. ForCanada, sustainabledevelopment is aprerequisite of ourprosperity and asafeguard of our identityand we were proud to beone of the original co-sponsors of the UnitedNations resolution calling

forUNCED.Themainchallenge of UN CED wasto bring the North andSouth together to worktowards the goal ofsustainable development.TheSummit'sconventions on dimatechange and biodiversitywere indicative of thegreat strides we havemade in achieving ourobjective. However,success will be measurednot in words, butin actions. Our c/zildren'sfuture depends on thesteadfastness of ourcommitment.Brian MulroneyPrime Minister

CanadaC Industrial developmentBasis for action Industry is essential for the productionof goods and services and is a major source ofemployment and income, and industrial developmentas such is essential for economic growth. At thesame time, industry is a major resource and materialsuser and consequently industrial activities result inemissions into the atmosphere and the environmentas a whole. Protection of the atmosphere can beenhanced, inter alia, by increasing resource andmaterials efficiency in industry, installing or improvingpollution abatement technologies and replacingchlorofluorocarbons (CFCS) and other ozone-depletingsubstances with appropriate substitutes, as well as byreducing wastes and by-produCts.

sustainable development, inter alia throughenvironmental impact assessments;C Promote the research, development, transfer anduse of improved energy-efficient technologies andpractices, including endogenous technologies inall relevant Sectors, giving special atrention to therehabilitation and modernization of power systems,with particular atrention to developing countries;d Promote the research, development, transfer anduse of technologies and practices for environmentallysound energy systems, including new and renewableenergy systems, with particular attention to

devdoping countries;8 Promote the development of institUtional, scientific,planning and management capacities, particularly indevdoping countries, to develop, produce, and useincreasingly efficient and less polluting forms of energy;f Review current energy supply mixes to determinehow the contribution of environmentally sound energysystems as a whole, particularly new and renewableenergy systems, could be increased in an economicallyefficient manner, taking into account respectivecountries' unique social, physical, economic andpolitical characteristics, and examining andimplementing, where appropriate, measures toovercome any barriers to their development and use;g Coordinate energy plans regionally and sub-regionally, where applicable, and stUdy the feasibilityof efficient distribution of environmentally soundenergy from new and renewable energy sources;h In accordance with national socio-economicdevelopment and environment priorities, evaluate and,as appropriate, promote"cost-effecrive policies or pro-grammes, including administrative, social and ec0-nomic measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;I Build capacity for energy planning and programmemanagement in energy efficiency, as well as for thedevdopment, introduction, and promotion of new andrenewable sources of energy;J Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission

standards or recommendations at the national level 2,aimed at the development and use of technologies thatminimize adverse impacts on the environment.k Encourage education and awareness-raisingprogrammes at the local, national, subregional andregional levels concerning energy efficiency andenvironmentally sound energy systems;I Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperationwith the private sector, labelling programmes for pro-ducts to provide decision makers and consumers withinformation on opportUnities for energy efficiency.

Objectives The basic objective of thiS programme areais to encourage industrial development in ways thatminimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere by, interalia, increasing efficiency in the production and con-sumption by industry of all resources and materials, byimproving pollurion-abatement technologies, and bydeveloping new environmentally sound technologies.

B TransportationBasis D action The transpon sector has an essentialand positive role to play in economic and socialdevelopment, and transponation needs willundoubtedly increase. However, since the transponsector is also a source of atmospheric emissions, thereis need for a review of existing transpon systems, andthe more effective design and management of trafficand transpon systems.J

ActIvitIes Governments at the appropriate levd, withthe cooperation of the relevant United Nationsbodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental andnon-governmental organizations, and the privatesector, should:a In accordance with national socio-economicdevelopment and environment priorities, evaluateand, as appropriate, promote cost effective policiesor programmes, including administrative, social andeconomic measures, in order to minimize industrialpollution and adverse impacts on the atmosphere;b Encourage industry to increase and strengthenits capacity to develop technologies, products andprocesses which are safe, less polluting, and makemore efficient use of all resources and materials,

including energy;

Objectives The basic objective of this programme areais to develop and promote cost-effective policies orprogrammes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce orcontrol, as appropriate, harmful emissions into theatmosphere and other adverse environmental effectsof the transport Sector, taking into accountdevelopment priorities as well as the specific.local andnational circumstances and safety aspects.

Activities Governments at the appropriate levd, with thecooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and.as appropriate, intergovernmental and nongovernmentalorganizations, and the private sector, should:

98

Leaf loss on a beech tree inKnole Park, United Kingdomillustrates the impactatmospheric emissions canhave on trees. Freshwaterand marine ecosystems andbiodiversity are also affected.Right: Sweden. Lime isdumped into a lake toneutralize the acid whichis killing it.

changes and their socio-economic and ecologicalimpacts are fully taken into account in planning andimplementing policies and programmes concerningterrestrial and marine resources utilization and land-use practices.

C Cooperate in development and transfer of suchindustrial technologies and in development ofcapacities to manage and use such technologies,particularly with respect to developing countries;d Develop, improve and apply enviromnental impactassessments to foster sustainable industrial development;. Promote efficient use of materials and resources,taking into account the life cycles of products, in orderto realize the economic and environmental benefitsof using resources more efficiently and producingless wastes;f Support thc promotion of less polluting and moreefficient technologies and processes in industries,taking into account area-specific accessible potentialsfor energy, particularly safe and renewable sources ofenergy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution andadverse impacts on the atmosphere.

D Terrestrial and marine resource development andland useBasisflH'adion I~nd-use and resource policies will bothaffect and be affected by changes in the atmosphere.Certain practices related to terrestrial and marineresources and land use can decrease greenhouse gassinks and increase atmospheric emissions. The lossof biological diversity may reduce the resilience ofecosystems to climatic variations and air pollutiondamage. Atmospheric changes can have importantimpacts on forests, biodiversity, and freshwater andmarine ecosystems, as well as on economic activities,such as agriculture. Policy objectives in differentsectors may often diverge and will need to be handledin an integrated manner.

AcUvlUes Governments at the appropriate level, withthe cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodiesand, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the privatesector, should:a In accordance with national socio-economicdevelopment and environment priorities, evaluateand, as appropriate, promote cost effective policiesor progtamrnes, including adrninisrrative, socialand economic measures, in order to encourageenvironmentally sound land-use practices.b Implement policies and progtammes that willdiscourage inappropriate and poUuting land-usepractices and promote sustainable utilization ofterresrrial and marine resources;c Consider promoting the development and use ofterrestrial and marine resources and land-use practicesthat will be more resilient to atmospheric changesand fluctuations;d Promote sustainable management and cooperationin the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate,of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, includingbiomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial,coastal and marine ecosystems.

C ~venting stratospheric ozone depletion

Basisforactlon Analysis of recent scientific data hasconfirmed the growing concern about the continuingdepletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer byreactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCS,halons and related substances. While the I985 ViennaConvention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer andthe I987 Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer (as amended in London inI990) were important steps in international action,the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of ozone-depleting substances has continued to rise. This canbe changed through compliance with the controlmeasures identified within the Protocol.

Objectives The objectives of this programme area are:a To promote terrestrial and marine resourceutilization and appropriate land-use practices thatcontribute to:I Reducing atmospheric pollution and/or limitinganthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;il The conservation, sustainable management andenhancement, where appropriate, of all sinks for

greenhouse gases;Iii The conservation and sustainable use of natural andenvironmental resources;b To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric

99

e Replace CFCS and other ozone-depleting substances,consiStent with the Montreal Protocol, recognizingthat a replacement's suitability should be evaluatedholistically and not simply based on its contribution tosolving one armospheric or environmental problem.

Objectives The objectives of this programme area are:a To realize the objectives defined in the ViennaConvention and the Montreal Protocol and its 1990amendments, including the consideration in thoseinstruments of the special needs and conditions of thedeveloping countries and the availability to them ofalternatives to substances that deplere the owne layer.Technologies and natural products that reducedemand for these substances should be encouraged;b To develop strategies aimed at mitigating theadverse effects of ultraviolet radiation reaching theEarth's surface as a consequence of depletion andmodification of the stratospheric owne layer.

0 Trarmboundary abnospheric pollution- -

Basisforaclion Transboundary air pollution has adversehealth impacts on humans and other detrimentalenvironmenral impacts, such as tree and forest loss andthe acidification of water bodies. The geographicaldistribution of atmospheric pollution monitoring net-works is uneven, with the developing countries severelyunderrepresented. The lack of reliable emissions dataoutside Europe and North America is a major con-straint to measuring transboundary air pollution.There is also insufficient information on the environ-mental and health effects of air pollution in orner regions.

The I979 Economic Commission for EuropeConvention on Long-range Transboundary AirPollution, and its protocols, have established a regionalregime in Ellrope and North America, based on areview process and cooperative programmes forsystematic observation of air pollution, assessment andinformation exchange. These programmes need to becontinued and enhanced, and their experience needs tobe shared with other regions of the world.

AcIiviIIes Governments at the appropriate level,with the cooperation of the relevant United Nationsbodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmentaland non-governmental organizations, and theprivate sector, should:a Rarify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocoland its 1990 amendments; pay their contributionstowards the Vienna/Montreal trUSt funds and theinterim multilateral ozone fund promptly; andcontribute, as appropriate, towards ongoing effortsunder the Montreal Protocol and its implementingmechanisms, including making available substitutesfor CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances andfacilitating the transfer of the correspondingtechnologies to developing countries in order toenable them to comply with the obligations ofthe Protocol;b Support further expansion of the Global OzoneObserving System by facilitating - through bilateraland multilateral funding - the establishment and

operation of additional systematic observationstations, especially in the tropical belt in thesouthern hemisphere.c Participate actively in the continuous assessmentof scientific information and the health andenvironmental effects, as well as of the technologicaVeconomic implications of stratospheric ozone deple-tion; and consider further actions that prove warrantedand feasible on the basis of these assessments;d Based on the results of research on the effects ofthe additional ultraviolet radiation reaching theEarth's surface, consider taking appropriate remedialmeasures in the fields of human health, agriculture andmarine environment;

Above: the Australian SlipSlap Slop campaign educates

the public on the dangers of

sun exposure and Its link toskin cancer. Below: A traffic

policeman in Bangkok

protecls himself from

hamlfulemissionswith a mask.

Objectives lne objectives of this programmearea are:a To develop and apply pollution control andmeasurement technologies for stationary and mobilesources of air pollution and to develop alternativeenvironmentally sound technologies;b To observe and assess sYStematically the sourcesand eXtent of transboundary air pollution resultingfrom natural processes and anthropogenic activities;c To Strengthen the capabilities, particularly ofdeveloping countries, to measure, model and assessthe fate and impacts of transboundary air pollution,through, inter alia, exchange of information andtraining of experts;d To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate trans-boundary air pollution resulting from indUStrial andnuclear accidents, natural disasters and the deliberateand/or accidental destruction of natural resources;e To encourage the establishment of new and theimplementation of existing regional agreements forlimiting transboundary air pollution;f To develop strategies aiming at the reduction ofemissions causing transboundary air pollution andtheir ~s.

Activities Governments at the appropriate level, withthe cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodiesand, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, the private sector andfinancial institutions, should:a Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements fortransboundary air pollution control and cooperate,particularly with developing countries, in the areas ofsystematic observations and assessment, modelling andthe development and exchange of emission controltechnologies of mobile and stationary sources of airpollution. In this context, greater emphasis should beput on addressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economic impacts of ultraviolet radiation, acidificationof the environment and photo-oxidant damage toforests and other vegetarion;b Establish or strengthen early warning systems andresponse mechanisms for transboundary air pollutionresulting from industrial accidents and natural disastersand the deliberate and/or accidental destruction ofnatural resources;

101

concessional terms. For programme Area C inthe range of $I6o-S90 million on grant orconcessional terms.

c Facilitate training opportunities and exch~eof data, information and national and/or

regional experiences;d Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateralbases to assess transboundary air pollution, andelaborate and implement programmes identifyingspecific actions to reduce atmospheric emissionsand to address their environmental, economic, socialand other effects.

FinaMial and cost evaluation For programme Area A

about $640 million from the international communityon gram or concessional terms. For the four-partprogramme under Programme Area B about $20billion from the international community on grant or

1 New and renewable energy sources are solarthermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass,geothermal, ocean, animal and human power,as referred to in the reports of the Committeeon the Development and Utilization of New andRenewable Sources of Energy, prepared specificallyfor the Conference (see AlCONF.151/PC/119 andAI AC.218/1992/5).2 This includes standards or recommendationspromoted by regional economic integration

organizations.

Integrated approach to the planning and management of land resourcesChapter 1 0

planning and management activities concerned withthe various aspects of land use and land resources.

The present chapter consists of one programmearea, the integrated approach to the planning andmanagement of land resources, which deals withthe reorganization and, where necessary, somestrengthening of the decision-making structure,including existing policies, planning and managementprocedures and methods that can assist in putting inplace an integrated approach to land resources. It doesnot deal with the operational aspectS of planning andmanagement, which are more appropriately dealtwith under the relevant sectoral programmes. Sincethe programme deals with an important cross-sectoralaspect of decision-making for sustainable development,it is closely related to a number of other programmesthat deal with that issue directly.

Integrated approach to the planning and management of landresources

Land is normally defined as a physical entity in termsof its topography and spatial nature; a broader inte-grative view also includes natural resources: the soils,minerals, water and biota that the land comprises.These components are organized in ecosystems whichprovide a variety of services essential to the mainten-ance of the integrity of life-support systems and theproductive capacity of the environment. Landresources are used in ways that take advantage of allthese characteristics. Land is a finite resource, whilethe natural resources it supports can vaty over tinteand according to management conditions and uses.Expanding human requirements and economicactivities are placing ever increasing pressures onland resources, creating competition and conflictsand resulting in suboptimal use of both land and landresources. If, in the future, human requirements areto be met in a sustainable manner, it is now essentialto resolve these conflicts and move towards moreeffective and efficient use of land and its naturalresources. Integrated physical and land-use planningand management is an eminently practical way toachieve this. By examining all uses of land in anintegrated manner, it makes it possible to minimizeconflicts, to make the most efficient trade-offs andto link social and economic development withenvironmental protection and enhancement, thushelping to aChieve the objectives of sustainabledevelopment. The essence of the integrated approachfinds expression in the coordination of the sectoral

Basis for lcIion Land resources are used for a variety ofpurposes which interact and may compete with oneanother; therefore, it is desirable to plan and manageall uses in an integrated manner. Integration shouldtake place at two levels, considering, on the one hand,all environmental, social and economic factors(including, for example, impacts of the variouseconomic and social sectors on the environment andnatural resources) and, on the other, all environmental

Harvesting potatoes on

recently deforesteillandin Cameroon. In Dlis hillyterritory DIe topsoil will

rapidly be washed away byrain unless soil conservation

measures are taken.

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