Chapter 9: Religion & Ritual

Objectives:o Define religion, ritual, and myth and explain

their social functionso Describe the history of anthropological studies

of religiono Understand Clifford Geertz’s definition of

religion as a cultural systemo Explain the relevance of anthropological study

of religion to Christian life

Studying Religion

Clifford Geertz’s definition: A system of symbols which

acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men [and women] by formulating conceptions of general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic

What it accomplishes:

Directs anthropologist’s attention to the social and cultural forms and meanings of religion

Does not require conception of “spirituality” or supernatural being.

Studying Religion

Anthropology offers an important perspective on the cultural part of religion.

Studying Christianity anthropologically can benefit Christians. Can help us see that Christian symbols work in similar

ways to other peoples’ symbols Can help us perceive and critique how our Christian

symbols intersect with other parts of our social and cultural life

Can help us understand how symbols and practices change over time and across cultures

Can help us to understand how other religions reflect our common humanity

Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft

Magic and witchcraft are related to religion but are also distinct.

Magic refers to ritual practices that are believed to have effects on particular situations. It is like religion in that it addresses human insecurities

and fears, and it involves dealing with the invisible realm of life.

It is unlike religion in that it is limited to specific events and outcomes; it doesn’t involve a lifestyle of devotion, and it has a much smaller corporate component.

Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft (cont.)

Witchcraft is evil done by a person without his or her awareness.

Harm that occurs to someone in the group may be attributed to the witch, which may serve as a plausible explanation when all normal causes for a problem have been exhausted

Sorcery is evil done by a person who caused it to happen. A sorcerer has access to spiritual power and is able to activate

the power to harm others Witchcraft and sorcery are like religion because they help

address otherwise unexplainable human suffering and provide an explanation for how the supernatural and natural worlds intersect.

They are unlike religion in that they involve less extensive ritual, less complex theologies, and few (if any) corporate practices.

Early Anthropological Approaches to Religion

Edward Tylor drew on unilinear cultural evolution theory to propose that changes in religious systems

provide a prototype for cultural change generally. All religions follow a common trajectory from primitive

to complex. Most primitive religion is animism, the belief that souls

or spirits exist not only in humans, but also in plants, animals, elements of nature, or even all of creation.

Animism leads to polytheism, the belief in many gods/goddesses.

Polytheism leads to monotheism, the belief that there is only one god.

Functions of Religion

Anthropologists saw the limitations of unilinear cultural theory and moved towards a functionalist theory of religion. Anthropologists did not ask whether or not a religion

was really true; they were studying how religious beliefs and practices worked to stabilize or improve the culture as a whole.

Anthropologists also began to draw on materialist theories. Cultural materialism is a theory that interprets

religious behaviors and beliefs in terms of how they help humans adapt to the material conditions in which they live.

Religion as a Cultural System

Functionalist and materialistic theories of religion were reductionistic because they saw religion as merely an effect of other parts of culture.

Clifford Geertz’s definition of religion as a system of symbols does not deny the functional consequences of religion. encourages anthropologists to study religion as a thing

in itself, rather than a result of other causes. focuses on how people use religion to make sense of

life, the universe, and everything. Three important dimensions to religion as a cultural

system are: symbols, ritual, and myth.

Religion as a Cultural System

Symbols

A symbol is an object, sound, action, or idea to which people assign arbitrary meaning. Symbols affirm what people believe to be true of the

world.

A symbol system evokes moods and motivations that allow for an expression of, and understanding of, a particular conception of a general order of existence. People use real objects and actions to help create a

sense that what they believe is true.

Religion as a Cultural System

Ritual

Any patterned, repeated, predictable action

May be secular or religious

Is performed to emphasize some fact, desire, or belief; to transform or influence the feelings or beliefs of those participating; or to resignify social relationships

Three significant categories of ritual are: Rites of intensification, rites of affliction, and rites of passage

Religion as a Cultural System

Ritual: Rites of Intensification

Rituals in which elements of society, belief, values, or behaviors are made more dramatic, intense, or real than in normal life

A high school pep rally and a romantic date are examples of nonreligious rites of intensification.

Christian worship, the Lord’s Prayer, and the Lord’s Supper are examples of religious (specifically Christian) rites of intensification.

Religion as a Cultural System

Ritual: Rites of Affliction

Rituals directed at alleviating suffering or resolving a problem

Rituals for the growth and protection of crops, physical healing, or the maintenance of good social relationships are so much a part of life that people do not consider them religion.

Baptism is a Christian rite of affliction.

Christian rites of affliction are not magic; they are not transactions because the outcome is not guaranteed.

Religion as a Cultural System

Ritual: Rites of Passage

Rituals that transform a person or people from one life state to another Also known as life-cycle rituals Take a person or people through phases in which social

status is thought to change

Victor Turner identifies three common stages of rites of passage Separation Liminality Reintegration

Religion as a Cultural System

Rituals: Rites of Passage (cont.) Separation

Symbolically or physically separating those going through the transition from their old identity

Liminality Person/people move into an identity that is not yet the

new one but also not the old They are sometimes required to do things that under

normal circumstances would be forbidden, harmful, or shameful.

Reintegration The person or people are welcomed back into the

community in their new identity

Religion as a Cultural System

Myth For rituals to have meaning they must be rooted in

foundational myths. In anthropology, the word “myth” does not imply

that something is not true, but rather that it is important.

A myth is any story with sacred significance. Tells people what is important, valued, and right May be secular (like a ritual)

Two views of myth in anthropology Malinowski sees myths as charters for social

organization. Levi-Strauss agrees with Malinowski but believes that

myths more fundamentally organize human thought.

Ritual Change

The relative importance of particular myths change, and as people’s concerns or values change, so too do ritual forms. Ritual change is evident even in wedding rituals. The most radical form of ritual change is when

someone converts from one religious system to another.

Christians and Anthropology Anthropology analyzes religion as a cultural system

and offers holistic interpretation of how people incorporate religion into their lives. It does not make any claims as to whether a religious

belief is true. Anthropological analysis reveals how the image of

God, present in every human being, drives people everywhere to seek God.

Those who feel called to cross cultural boundaries in sharing their faith need to understand how the symbols, myths, rituals, and other practices of religion work together to help people believe.

God is never completely or perfectly represented in any manifestation of human devotion, and therefore it should not surprise us that Christians have many different ways of expressing this commitment.