Chapter EightChapter EightPragmaticsPragmatics

1.1 Major concerns1.1 Major concerns

Q: In what ways do we study Q: In what ways do we study language?language?

MeaningMeaning ContextContext

1.2 Meaning: dictionary1.2 Meaning: dictionary He meant to write.He meant to write. intendedintended A green light means go.A green light means go. indicateindicate Health means everything.Health means everything. hashas

importanceimportance What’s the meaning of life?What’s the meaning of life? pointpoint What does it mean to you?What does it mean to you? conveyconvey What does ‘ghost’ mean?What does ‘ghost’ mean? refer to refer to

in in the the

worldworld

ExamplesExamples

Dog!Dog! It’s cold here.It’s cold here. My bag is heavy.My bag is heavy. ““Janet! Donkeys!” (David CoppJanet! Donkeys!” (David Copp

erfield)erfield)

1.3 Sentence meaning 1.3 Sentence meaning What does X mean?What does X mean? Sentence: a grammatical concept, abSentence: a grammatical concept, ab

stract, self-contained unit in isolatiostract, self-contained unit in isolation from contextn from context

Sentence meaning: abstract, intrinsiSentence meaning: abstract, intrinsic property, decontexualizedc property, decontexualized

1.4 Utterance meaning1.4 Utterance meaning

What do you mean by X?What do you mean by X? UtteranceUtterance: sth a speaker utters in a cer: sth a speaker utters in a cer

tain situation with a certain purposetain situation with a certain purpose Utterance meaningUtterance meaning: concrete, contex: concrete, contex

t-dependent t-dependent Speakers’ meaningSpeakers’ meaning

1.5 Sentence M vs. 1.5 Sentence M vs. Utterance MUtterance M

(A little boy comes in the front door.)(A little boy comes in the front door.)• Mother: Mother: Wipe your feet, please.Wipe your feet, please.

(A father is trying to get his 3-(A father is trying to get his 3-

year-old daughter to stop year-old daughter to stop lifting up her dress to display lifting up her dress to display her new underwear to the her new underwear to the assembled.)assembled.)

Father: We don’t DO that.Father: We don’t DO that. Daughter: I KNOW, Daddy. You don’t Daughter: I KNOW, Daddy. You don’t

WEAR dresses.WEAR dresses.

Sometimes we may know only Sometimes we may know only Sentence M instead of Utterance M.Sentence M instead of Utterance M.

Some utterances are not Some utterances are not grammatically complete sentences, grammatically complete sentences, such as “Ouch”.such as “Ouch”.

Q: How do we recognize Utterance Q: How do we recognize Utterance M?M?

Utterance M: Sentence M + ContextUtterance M: Sentence M + Context

1.5 Context1.5 Context

Linguistic knowledgeLinguistic knowledge Extra-linguistic knowledgeExtra-linguistic knowledge

Context

Linguistic knowledge

Extra-linguistic knowledge

Linguistic knowledgeLinguistic knowledge1.1. Knowledge of the language they useKnowledge of the language they use2.2. Knowledge of what has been said Knowledge of what has been said

beforebefore Extra-linguistic knowledgeExtra-linguistic knowledge1.1. Knowledge about the world in Knowledge about the world in

generalgeneral2.2. Knowledge about the specific Knowledge about the specific

situationsituation3.3. Knowledge about each otherKnowledge about each other

1.6 Extra-linguistic 1.6 Extra-linguistic knowledgeknowledge

Background knowledge

Commonsense

Social norms

Conversation rules

ExamplesExamples

It was a hot Christmas day so we It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.swimming and surfing.

A: Do you like rugby?A: Do you like rugby?

B: I am a New Zealander.B: I am a New Zealander. A: You speak beautiful English.A: You speak beautiful English.

B: My English is very poor.B: My English is very poor.

Situation knowledge

Timeplace

Topicformality

Relation Bt. users

ExamplesExamples

吃过了吗吃过了吗 ? (? ( 时间、地点不同产生不同意义时间、地点不同产生不同意义吗？吗？ ))

11 、两个熟人打招呼。、两个熟人打招呼。22 、说话人手里拿着包子。、说话人手里拿着包子。33 、说话人与听话人约好去超市，催促动身。、说话人与听话人约好去超市，催促动身。44 、说话人与听话人密谋害人。、说话人与听话人密谋害人。

ExamplesExamples

AA ：做啥呢？：做啥呢？BB ：看手机呢。：看手机呢。AA ：我早都看过了。：我早都看过了。BB ：手机，我要买手机。：手机，我要买手机。

Mutual knowldedge: shared by the sMutual knowldedge: shared by the speaker & hearerpeaker & hearer

ExamplesExamples

A: Are you going to the seminar?A: Are you going to the seminar?B: It’s on linguistics.B: It’s on linguistics.

A: Would you like some coffee?A: Would you like some coffee?B: Coffee would keep me awake.B: Coffee would keep me awake.

A: A: 这件衣服很漂亮，可惜我今天带的钱不这件衣服很漂亮，可惜我今天带的钱不够了。够了。B: B: 那就下次再买吧。那就下次再买吧。

1.7 Context & language 1.7 Context & language useuse C determines the hearer’s C determines the hearer’s

interpretation of what is said to interpretation of what is said to him.him.

C governs the speaker’s use of C governs the speaker’s use of language.language.

Q: Any examples?Q: Any examples?

ExamplesExamples

In-class conversation vs. after-classIn-class conversation vs. after-class Borrowing a pen vs. 200 yuanBorrowing a pen vs. 200 yuan Borrowing sth from your classmates Borrowing sth from your classmates

vs. from your teachervs. from your teacher Talking to a two-year-old vs. your paTalking to a two-year-old vs. your pa

rentsrents Talking to a girlfriend vs. boyfriendTalking to a girlfriend vs. boyfriend

1.8 Definition of 1.8 Definition of PragmaticsPragmatics The study of language in use.The study of language in use. The study of language The study of language

production & language production & language comprehension.comprehension.

The study of meaning in context.The study of meaning in context. The study of language in relation The study of language in relation

to its users.to its users. The study of speakers’ M, The study of speakers’ M,

utterance M, & contextual M.utterance M, & contextual M.

2. Speech Act Theory2. Speech Act Theory

John AustinJohn Austin How to Do Things with Words How to Do Things with Words

(1962)(1962) speech acts: actions speech acts: actions

performed via utterancesperformed via utterances

2.1 Constatives vs. performat2.1 Constatives vs. performativesives ConstativesConstatives: utterances which roughly : utterances which roughly

serves to state a fact, report that sometserves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what somhing is the case, or describe what something is, eg: ething is, eg:

I go to the park every Sunday.I go to the park every Sunday. I teach English.I teach English.

Performatives:Performatives: utterances which are u utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or sed to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of treport anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action. he sentence is the doing of an action.

I do.I do. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorroI bet you sixpence it will rain tomorro

w.w. I give and bequeath my watch to my bI give and bequeath my watch to my b

rotherrother..

2.2 Features of performativ2.2 Features of performativeses The first person singularThe first person singular Speech act verbs / performative verbSpeech act verbs / performative verb

s:s: The present tenseThe present tense Indicative moodIndicative mood Active voiceActive voice

I take a cold bath everyday.I take a cold bath everyday. I jog ten miles every Sunday.I jog ten miles every Sunday. I like to drive fast cars.I like to drive fast cars. Pedestrians are warned to keep Pedestrians are warned to keep

off the grass.off the grass. Turn right.Turn right. Thank you!Thank you!

I promise to be there. / I’ll be I promise to be there. / I’ll be there.there.

I admit I was wrong. / I was foolish.I admit I was wrong. / I was foolish. I warn you, this gun is loaded. / I warn you, this gun is loaded. /

This gun is loaded.This gun is loaded. I thank you. / I’m very grateful.I thank you. / I’m very grateful. I apologize. / I’m sorry.I apologize. / I’m sorry. I order you to sit down. / You must I order you to sit down. / You must

sit down.sit down.

The distinction between constatives The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintai& performatives cannot be maintained.ned.

All sentences can be used to do thinAll sentences can be used to do things.gs.

2.3 Illocutionary Act 2.3 Illocutionary Act TheoryTheory Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 Speech acts can be analyzed on 3

levels: levels: A locutionary act: the act of A locutionary act: the act of

saying something in the full saying something in the full sense of “say”.sense of “say”.

An illocutionary act: an act An illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something. performed in saying something.

In saying X, I was doing Y.In saying X, I was doing Y. In saying “I will come tomorrow”, In saying “I will come tomorrow”,

I was making a promise.I was making a promise. Illocutionary forceIllocutionary force

A perlocutionary act: the act A perlocutionary act: the act preformed by or as a result of preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.saying, the effects on the hearer.

By saying X and doing Y, I did Z.By saying X and doing Y, I did Z. By saying “I will come tomorrow” By saying “I will come tomorrow”

and making a promise, I reassure and making a promise, I reassure my friends.my friends.

Shoot her!Shoot her!

2.4 Searle’s classification 2.4 Searle’s classification of speech actsof speech acts

1.1. representatives: stating or representatives: stating or describing, saying what the describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.speaker believes to be true.

assert, state, swear, guess, deny, assert, state, swear, guess, deny, inform, notify, etcinform, notify, etc

2. Directives: trying to get the hearer 2. Directives: trying to get the hearer to do sth.to do sth.Request, advise, order, urge, tell, etc Request, advise, order, urge, tell, etc

3. commisives: committting the spea3. commisives: committting the speaker himself to some future course of ker himself to some future course of actionactionCommit, promise, threaten, pledge, Commit, promise, threaten, pledge, etcetc

4. expressives: expressing feelings or 4. expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateattitude towards an existing stateApologize, thank, congratulate, greet,Apologize, thank, congratulate, greet, etc. etc.I’m really sorry!I’m really sorry!

Congratulations!Congratulations!

5. declarations: bringing about imme5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying sthdiate changes by saying sthDeclare, appoint, nominate, name, etDeclare, appoint, nominate, name, etc. c. I now appoint you chairman.I now appoint you chairman.I fire you!I fire you!

2.5 2.5 Indirect Speech ActIndirect Speech Act

I request that you speak a little louder.I request that you speak a little louder.Can you speaker a little louder?Can you speaker a little louder?

An indirect speech act is one performed An indirect speech act is one performed by means of anotherby means of another..

requestsrequests

Group 1: Sentences concerning H’s aGroup 1: Sentences concerning H’s ability to perform A:bility to perform A:

Can youCan you reach the salt? reach the salt? Could youCould you be a little more quiet? be a little more quiet? You canYou can go now. go now. Have you gotHave you got change for a dollar? change for a dollar?

requestrequest

Group 2: Sentences concerning S’s wiGroup 2: Sentences concerning S’s wish or want that H will do Ash or want that H will do A::

I would like youI would like you to go now. to go now. I’d rather youI’d rather you didn’t do that. didn’t do that. I would/should appreciate it if you wI would/should appreciate it if you w

ould/couldould/could do it for me do it for me

requestrequest

Group 3: Sentences concerning H’s dGroup 3: Sentences concerning H’s doing A:oing A:

Officers Officers willwill hence forth wear ties at di hence forth wear ties at dinner.nner.

Will youWill you quit making that awful racket? quit making that awful racket? Would youWould you kindly get off my foot? kindly get off my foot?

requestsrequests

Group 4: Sentences concerning H’s dGroup 4: Sentences concerning H’s desire esire oror willingness to do A: willingness to do A:

Do you want toDo you want to hand me that hammer hand me that hammer over there on the table?over there on the table?

Would it be convenient for you toWould it be convenient for you to co come on Wednesday?me on Wednesday?

Would you mind notWould you mind not making so much making so much noise?noise?

3. Conversational 3. Conversational ImplicatureImplicature

3.1 Cooperative Principle3.1 Cooperative Principle

HOW do we manage to HOW do we manage to understand each other if in most understand each other if in most cases we don’t say what we mean cases we don’t say what we mean or we don’t mean what we say?or we don’t mean what we say?

Grice’s theory Grice’s theory Logic and ConversatiLogic and Conversationon is an attempt at explaining is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what is how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant, from the said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.level of implied meaning.

Make your contribution such Make your contribution such as required at the stage at as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are exchange in which you are engaged. engaged.

Maxim of Quality: Maxim of Quality:

Do not say what you believe to be Do not say what you believe to be false.false.

Do not say something if you lack Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;adequate evidence;

Maxim of Quantity:Maxim of Quantity:

Make your contribution as Make your contribution as informative as required (for informative as required (for the current purposes of the the current purposes of the exchange) .exchange) .

Do not make your contribution Do not make your contribution more informative than more informative than required. required.

Maxim of Relation:Maxim of Relation: Be relative. Be relative. Maxim of Manner:Maxim of Manner: Be Be

perspicuous.perspicuous.

Avoid obscurity of expression.Avoid obscurity of expression.

Avoid ambiguity.Avoid ambiguity.

Be brief.Be brief.

Be orderly.Be orderly.

CP is meant to describe what CP is meant to describe what actually happens in actually happens in conversation.conversation.

CP and its maxims guide us.CP and its maxims guide us. Violation of CP and its maxims Violation of CP and its maxims

leads to conversational leads to conversational implicature.implicature.

3.2 Violation of the 3.2 Violation of the maxims (Quantity)maxims (Quantity)

1.1.

Dear Sir, Dear Sir,

Mr. X’s command of English is Mr. X’s command of English is excellent.excellent.

And his attendance at tutorial has And his attendance at tutorial has beenbeen

regular. regular.

Yours, XXYours, XX

2. 2. Aunt: How did Jimmy do his Aunt: How did Jimmy do his

history history exam?exam?Mother: Oh, not at all well. Mother: Oh, not at all well.

TeachersTeachers asked him things that asked him things that

happened happened before the poor boy was before the poor boy was

born.born.

3.3.

Boys are boys.Boys are boys.

War is war.War is war.

3.3 Violation of the 3.3 Violation of the maxims (Quality)maxims (Quality)

1. metaphor1. metaphor

You are the cream in my coffee.You are the cream in my coffee.

X runs as fast as a deer.X runs as fast as a deer.

He is made of iron.He is made of iron.

3.4 Violation of the 3.4 Violation of the maxims (Relation)maxims (Relation)

11A: What do you think of the prof.?A: What do you think of the prof.?B: Nice weather for the time of year.B: Nice weather for the time of year.

2 2 萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好 ,,

很很 忠诚的。忠诚的。朴：恩，我很累了。 我预备到书房歇一下。 朴：恩，我很累了。 我预备到书房歇一下。 你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。

3.5 Violation of the 3.5 Violation of the maxims (Manner)maxims (Manner)

1.1.

A: Let’s get the kids something.A: Let’s get the kids something.

B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-TE.B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-TE.

2.2.

A: Did you get my assignment?A: Did you get my assignment?

B: I received two pages clipped B: I received two pages clipped together together

and covered with rows of black and covered with rows of black squiggles.squiggles.

3.6 Characteristics of 3.6 Characteristics of implicatureimplicature CancellabilityCancellabilitya. John has three cows.a. John has three cows.b. John has only three cows and no mob. John has only three cows and no mo

re. re. c. John has three cows, if not more.c. John has three cows, if not more.d. John has at least three cows.d. John has at least three cows.

Non-detachability:Non-detachability: implicature is attached implicature is attached to to the semantic content of what is said, not tthe semantic content of what is said, not to the o the linguistic form; linguistic form; implicatures do not implicatures do not vanish if the words of an utterance vanish if the words of an utterance are changed forare changed forsynonyms.synonyms.A: Shall we go the cinema tonight?A: Shall we go the cinema tonight?B: There’ll be an exam tomorrow.B: There’ll be an exam tomorrow. I’ll take an exam tomorrow.I’ll take an exam tomorrow. Isn’t there an exam tomorrow?Isn’t there an exam tomorrow?

Non-conventionality:Non-conventionality: implicature is implicature is different from its conventional different from its conventional meaning of words. It is context-meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context.dependent. It varies with context.

It’s getting hot here.It’s getting hot here.

Calculability:Calculability: hearers work out hearers work out implicature based on conventional implicature based on conventional meaning, CP and its maxims, meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.context, etc.