chapter eight social context: relationships and representatives
TRANSCRIPT
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The Major Social Context Factors in Negotiations
1. The number of parties and the relationships among those parties
2. The social knowledge and goals of the parties
3. The social norms that govern the negotiation (group and cultural norms and practices)
4. The communication processes that the parties use
5. The informal rules that govern their interaction
6. The physical environment and the cultural context in which a negotiation takes place
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The Number of Parties in a Negotiation
The basic possible roles for parties in a negotiation:
A negotiating dyad Agents and constituencies Additional negotiators Negotiating teams Unrepresented bystanders and audiences Third parties
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A Negotiating Dyad & Agents and Constituencies
A Negotiating Dyad
– When two isolated individuals negotiate for their own needs and interests
Agents and Constituencies– A negotiator is not acting for himself but for
others. We will call the negotiator in such situations an agent and the individuals he is representing a constituency
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Additional Negotiators & Negotiating Teams
Additional Negotiators– In some instances there are more than two
negotiators
– There is a possibility that parties will form alliances
Negotiating Teams– A team is two or more parties on the same side
who are collectively advocating the same positions and interests
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Unrepresented Bystanders and Audiences
Bystanders – Those who have some stake in a negotiation, care about
the issues or the process by which a resolution is reached
– Negotiators do not formally represent bystanders Audience
– Any individual or group of people not directly involved in or affected by a negotiation
– They may offer: Input Advice Criticism
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Third Parties
Third parties– Bystanders who may be drawn into the
negotiation specifically for the purpose of helping to resolve it
– Third parties often can reshape a polarized situation into a constructive agreement
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Negotiating Through Others Within a Relationship
The Adequacy of Past Theory and Research for Understanding Negotiation within Relationships
Forms of Relationships Negotiations in Communal Relationships
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The Adequacy of Past Theory and Research for Understanding
Negotiation within Relationships
Most of current negotiation theory is based on studies of simple transactions. They cannot take into account the effects of relationships on negotiations:
Negotiating within relationships takes place over time Negotiation is often not a way to discuss an issue, but a
way to learn more about the other party and increase interdependence
Resolution of simple distributive issues has implications for the future
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The Adequacy of Past Theory…
The effects of relationships on negotiations (cont.):
Distributive issues within relationship negotiations can be emotionally hot
Negotiating within relationships may never end In many negotiations, the other person is the focal
problem In some negotiations, relationship preservation is
the goal, and parties may make concessions on substantive issues to preserve or enhance the relationship
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Forms of Relationships
Four fundamental relationship forms: 1. Communal sharing
2. Authority ranking
3. Equality matching
4. Market pricing
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Forms of Relationships
1. Communal sharing– A relation of unity, community, collective
identity, and kindness, typically enacted among close kin
– Such relationships are found in: Families Clubs Fraternal organizations Neighborhoods
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Forms of Relationships
2. Authority ranking– A relationship of asymmetric differences,
commonly exhibited in a hierarchical ordering of status and precedence
– Examples include: Subordinates to bosses Soldiers to their commander Negotiators to their constituents
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Forms of Relationships
3. Equality matching – A one-to-one correspondence relationship in
which people are distinct but equal, as manifested in balanced reciprocity (or tit-for-tat revenge)
– Examples include: College roommates Soldiers of the same rank Members of a jazz band
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Forms of Relationships
4. Market pricing – Based on an (intermodel) metric of value by
which people compare different commodities and calculate exchange and cost/benefit ratios
– Examples can be drawn from all kinds of buyer–seller transactions
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Four Key Dimensions of Relationships
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Negotiations in Communal Relationships
Parties who are in a communal sharing relationship:
Are more cooperative and empathetic Craft better quality agreements Focus their attention on the other party’s
outcomes as well as their own Focus attention on the norms that develop about
the way that they work together
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Negotiations in Communal Relationships
Parties who are in a communal sharing relationship (con’t.):
Are more likely to share information with the other and less likely to use coercive tactics
May be more likely to use compromise or problem solving
Are more likely to use indirect communication about conflict issues, and develop a unique conflict structure– Examples: families develop own “fighting” styles
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Key Elements in Managing Negotiations within Relationships
Trust
Justice
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Key Elements in Managing Negotiations within Relationships
Trust– “An individual’s belief in and willingness to
act on the words, actions and decisions of another”
– Higher levels of trust make negotiation easier– Trust develops through three stages:
Calculus-based TrustKnowledge-based Trust Identification-based Trust
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Key Elements in Managing Negotiations within Relationships
Calculus-based Trust– Individuals will do what they say because they are
rewarded for keeping their word or they fear the consequences of not doing what they say
Knowledge-based Trust– Knowing the other sufficiently well so that one can
anticipate and predict his or her behavior Identification-based Trust
– Identification with the other’s desires and intentions. Trust exists because the parties effectively understand and appreciate each other’s wants
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Some Actions To Increase Different Forms of Trust in Negotiations
How to Increase Calculus-based Trust Create and meet the other party's expectations. Do what you say Stress the benefits of creating mutual trust Establish credibility. Make sure your statements are honest and accurate
How to Increase Knowledge-based Trust Have frequent interaction with the other. Meet often. Get to know the other Let the other learn about you. Tell him or her about yourself Be predictable. Learn to predict how the other will respond
How to Increase Identification-based Trust Develop similar interests Develop similar goals and objectives Act and respond similar to the other. Stand for the same principles, values,
and so on
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Key Elements in Managing Negotiations within Relationships (cont.)
JusticeCan take several forms:– Distributive justice
About the distribution of outcomes
– Procedural justice About the process of determining outcomes
– Interactive justice About how parties communicate with each other
– Systemic justice About how organizations appear to treat groups of
individuals
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Using Representatives
Using Representatives creates audiences. There are many different kinds of audiences: – Team Members– Constituents– Bystanders and Observers
Consequences of audiences:– They make negotiators ‘Try Harder’– Negotiators seek a positive reaction from them– They can push negotiators into ‘Irrational’
behavior– Then hold the negotiator accountable
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Tactical Implications of Social Structure Dynamics: The
Negotiator’s Dilemma
How can a negotiator satisfy both the constituency’s demands for firmness (and a settlement favorable to their interests), versus the other party’s demand for concessions (and a settlement favorable to the other party or to their mutual gain)?
Answer: A negotiator must build relationships with both the constituency and the other party
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Advice to Negotiators for Managing Their Constituencies and Audiences
1. Maintain Control over and “Manage” Audience Visibility
Limit Concessions by Making Negotiations Visible to the Constituency
Use the Constituency to Show Militancy Use the Constituency to Limit One’s Own
Authority Use Great Caution in Exceeding One’s Authority
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Advice to Negotiators for Managing Their Constituencies and Audiences
1. “Manage” Audience Visibility (cont.) Increase the Possibility of Concession to the
Other Negotiator by Cutting Off Visibility to Audiences– Establish “privacy” prior to the beginning of
negotiations
– Screen visibility during negotiations
– Be aware of time pressure Establish a Reputation for Cooperation
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Advice to Negotiators for Managing Their Constituencies and Audiences
2. Communicate Indirectly with Audiences and Constituents
Communicate through Superiors Communicate through Intermediaries Communicate Directly to the Other Party’s
Constituency
3. Communicate Directly to Bystanders and Audiences
4. Build Relationships with Audiences, Constituents and Other Agents
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Advice to Constituents in Managing Agents
The agent should lack authority to make a binding commitment on any substantive issues
The agent should have discretion to design, develop an effective overall negotiation process
The constituent should focus most communication to the agent on:– Interests
– Priorities
– Alternatives
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Advice to Constituents in Managing Agents
The constituent should set clear expectations about the frequency and quality of reporting back to them
Agent authority should expand as the constituent gains insight about them
Specific instructions to the agent should be in put in writing and be available to show to the other side
The constituent should instruct the agent on what they can disclose --interests, ranges of acceptable settlement, etc.