Chapter FourChapter FourLeadership: An Initial Leadership: An Initial

PerspectivePerspective

Leadership DefinedLeadership Defined

Management writers define leadership Management writers define leadership as the process of influencing the as the process of influencing the activities of an individual or group in activities of an individual or group in efforts toward goal achievement in a efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.given situation.

L= f(i,f,s) L= f(i,f,s) Leadership is a function of the leader, Leadership is a function of the leader,

the follower and other situational the follower and other situational variables.variables.

What Separates the Good What Separates the Good from the Bad? from the Bad?

The successful organization has one The successful organization has one attribute that separates it from an attribute that separates it from an unsuccessful one-dynamic and unsuccessful one-dynamic and effective leadershipeffective leadership

Leaders As Vision CreatorsLeaders As Vision Creators

““Leadership is making what you believe Leadership is making what you believe in…happen”.in…happen”.

Leaders must know where they are going Leaders must know where they are going if they are to get there…”without a vision, if they are to get there…”without a vision, the people perish”.the people perish”.

In order to get a powerful organization, In order to get a powerful organization, there must be a vision and the people of there must be a vision and the people of that organization must be clearly aligned that organization must be clearly aligned behind the vision.behind the vision.

It is the duty of top management to create It is the duty of top management to create for the organization in order to get for the organization in order to get concrete results.concrete results.

SOAR Peak Performance SOAR Peak Performance ModelModel

Determiners of the road to results is Determiners of the road to results is the SOAR Modelthe SOAR Model

An adaptation of Norman R.F. Maier’s An adaptation of Norman R.F. Maier’s classic Causal Sequence model.classic Causal Sequence model.

An Interaction between the Situation An Interaction between the Situation and the Organization leads to and the Organization leads to Activities that lead to Results.Activities that lead to Results.

SOAR Cont.SOAR Cont.

In order for an organization to SOAR to peak In order for an organization to SOAR to peak performance, the leader, as a vital part of the performance, the leader, as a vital part of the situation, must influence the organization’s situation, must influence the organization’s activities in order to achieve results. activities in order to achieve results.

A revision of of the SOAR Peak Performance A revision of of the SOAR Peak Performance Model adds to the model to represent the Leader. Model adds to the model to represent the Leader. The leader’s influence potential is represented in The leader’s influence potential is represented in this model by an equal sign to illustrate the this model by an equal sign to illustrate the increasingly indirect power of leaders.increasingly indirect power of leaders.

External forces such as political, social and External forces such as political, social and economic issues influence the environment of the economic issues influence the environment of the group. This causes the leader to have a decrease group. This causes the leader to have a decrease in power or the influence of the organization. in power or the influence of the organization.

Why Vision?Why Vision?

In order to get results, something In order to get results, something more is needed besides the leader’s more is needed besides the leader’s personality. That something more is personality. That something more is represented by the letter “V” in the represented by the letter “V” in the revisit of the SOAR Peak Performance revisit of the SOAR Peak Performance Model. The role of “Vision”is to pull Model. The role of “Vision”is to pull the organization toward results.the organization toward results.

Vision to Results ModelVision to Results Model The key “pattern” words for tomorrow’s success are:The key “pattern” words for tomorrow’s success are: VisionVision ChangeChange ImplementationImplementation ResultsResults

These four words are integral to the Vision to Results These four words are integral to the Vision to Results Model. This model combines each of these characteristics Model. This model combines each of these characteristics in a process oriented model composed of the following key in a process oriented model composed of the following key components:components:

VisionVision Business idea-Organizational enviormentBusiness idea-Organizational enviorment Strategy-CultureStrategy-Culture Goal –TeamsGoal –Teams Tasks-PeopleTasks-People ResultsResults

Several variables affect organizational Several variables affect organizational performance. Thus the VTR Model performance. Thus the VTR Model focuses on those variables that focuses on those variables that empirical research and managerial empirical research and managerial practice have identified as the most practice have identified as the most critical.critical.

Vision creates the potential for Vision creates the potential for success and turns potential into success and turns potential into results. results.

Leadership turns vision into resultsLeadership turns vision into resultsThe plan must be implemented. The plan must be implemented.

Leadership is more than creating Leadership is more than creating plans; it is implementing those plans; it is implementing those plans. Not only must the leader plans. Not only must the leader know what to do, he/she must do know what to do, he/she must do it! it!

The Four Levels of the Vision The Four Levels of the Vision to Results Modelto Results Model

Level one involves implementation of ideas in Level one involves implementation of ideas in the internal and external environment. These the internal and external environment. These ideas are affected by key players whose ideas are affected by key players whose helping or hindering roles determine success helping or hindering roles determine success or failure.or failure.

Level two finds strategic initiatives carried Level two finds strategic initiatives carried out within the corporate culture. “The way out within the corporate culture. “The way things are done around here”.things are done around here”.

Level three says that goals are achieved by Level three says that goals are achieved by teams.teams.

Level Four suggests that tasks are performed Level Four suggests that tasks are performed by people.by people.

Schools of Organizational Schools of Organizational Theory Theory

Schools of organizational theory include:Schools of organizational theory include:

• The Scientific Management Movement of The Scientific Management Movement of Frederick Winslow TaylorFrederick Winslow Taylor

• The Human Relations Movement of Elton The Human Relations Movement of Elton Mayo Mayo

Scientific Management Movement:Scientific Management Movement:Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Scientific Management Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Scientific Management

MovementMovement

During the early 1900s, one of the most popular theorists on During the early 1900s, one of the most popular theorists on management was Frederick W. Taylor.management was Frederick W. Taylor.

An improvement in the techniques, or methods used by An improvement in the techniques, or methods used by workers was the best way to achieve an increase in results. workers was the best way to achieve an increase in results. This was interpreted to mean that people were instruments This was interpreted to mean that people were instruments or machines to be manipulated by their leaders.or machines to be manipulated by their leaders.

Accepting this assumption, other leaders of the scientific Accepting this assumption, other leaders of the scientific management movement proposed that an organization as management movement proposed that an organization as rationally planned and executed as possible be developed rationally planned and executed as possible be developed to create more efficiency in administration; and therefore to create more efficiency in administration; and therefore increase production.increase production.

Management is completely divorced from human affairs and Management is completely divorced from human affairs and emotions. This caused the workers to adjust to the emotions. This caused the workers to adjust to the management and not the management to the workers.management and not the management to the workers.

Scientific Management Movement Scientific Management Movement (continued)(continued)

In order to accomplish this plan, time and motion studies were initiated by In order to accomplish this plan, time and motion studies were initiated by Taylor so that work tasks used to improve performance could be initiated. Taylor so that work tasks used to improve performance could be initiated. Once jobs were reorganized with efficiency in mind, the economic self-Once jobs were reorganized with efficiency in mind, the economic self-interest of the workers could be satisfied through various incentive work interest of the workers could be satisfied through various incentive work plans (ie. piece rates).plans (ie. piece rates).

The function of the leader under scientific management was to set up and The function of the leader under scientific management was to set up and enforce performance criteria to meet organizational goals.enforce performance criteria to meet organizational goals.

• The main focus of a leader was on the needs of the organization and not on The main focus of a leader was on the needs of the organization and not on the needs of the individuals.the needs of the individuals.

The Human Relations The Human Relations MovementMovement

Initiated by Elton Mayo in the 1920s and Initiated by Elton Mayo in the 1920s and 1930s.1930s.

Argued that in addition to finding the best Argued that in addition to finding the best technological methods to improve output, it technological methods to improve output, it was beneficial for management to look into was beneficial for management to look into human affairs.human affairs.

The organization was both developed The organization was both developed around the workers and had to take into around the workers and had to take into consideration human feelings and attitudes.consideration human feelings and attitudes.

The main focus was on individual needs and The main focus was on individual needs and not on the needs of the organization.not on the needs of the organization.

Human Relations Movement Human Relations Movement (continued)(continued)

Leadership has moved through three Leadership has moved through three dominate phases:dominate phases:

• TraitTrait

• AttitudinalAttitudinal

• SituationalSituational

Trait Approaches to Trait Approaches to LeadershipLeadership

Before 1945 the most common approach to study Before 1945 the most common approach to study of leadership concentrated on leadership traits. of leadership concentrated on leadership traits. This means that certain characteristics, such as This means that certain characteristics, such as physical energy or friendliness were essential for physical energy or friendliness were essential for effective leadership. It was felt that inherent effective leadership. It was felt that inherent personal qualities could be transferred from one personal qualities could be transferred from one situation to another.situation to another.

Since all individuals did not have these qualities, Since all individuals did not have these qualities, only those with them would be considered only those with them would be considered potential leaders.potential leaders.

Leadership training would only be helpful to those Leadership training would only be helpful to those with inherent leadership traits.with inherent leadership traits.

Trait ApproachesTrait Approaches

Reviews of research using this trait approach to Reviews of research using this trait approach to leadership revealed few significant or consistent leadership revealed few significant or consistent findings.findings.

This does not mean that certain traits will not This does not mean that certain traits will not hinder or facilitate leadership; the key is that no hinder or facilitate leadership; the key is that no set of traits has been identified that clearly set of traits has been identified that clearly predicts success or failure. predicts success or failure.

Trait Research ContinuesTrait Research Continues

Warren Bennis completed a five year study of ninety Warren Bennis completed a five year study of ninety outstanding leaders and their followers. He identified four outstanding leaders and their followers. He identified four common traits or areas of competence shared by all ninety common traits or areas of competence shared by all ninety leaders.leaders.

1. Management of attention: the ability to 1. Management of attention: the ability to communicate a sense of outcome, goal, or direction that communicate a sense of outcome, goal, or direction that attracts leaders.attracts leaders.

2. Management of meaning: the ability to create and 2. Management of meaning: the ability to create and communicate meaning with clarity and understanding.communicate meaning with clarity and understanding.

3. Management of trust: the ability to be reliable and 3. Management of trust: the ability to be reliable and consistent.consistent.

4. Management of self: the ability to know one’s self 4. Management of self: the ability to know one’s self and to use one’s skills within the limits of one’s strengths and to use one’s skills within the limits of one’s strengths and weaknesses.and weaknesses.

Trait Research (continued)Trait Research (continued)

Bennis updated these traits with seven Bennis updated these traits with seven characteristics of effective performance.characteristics of effective performance.

1. Business literacy1. Business literacy

2. People skills2. People skills

3. Conceptual skills3. Conceptual skills

4. Track Record4. Track Record

5. Taste5. Taste

6. Judgment6. Judgment

7. Character7. Character

Negative Leadership TraitsNegative Leadership Traits

According to John Geir, the three traits that According to John Geir, the three traits that kept group members from competing for kept group members from competing for leadership roles were:leadership roles were:

1. The perception of being uninformed.1. The perception of being uninformed.

2. The perception of being non-2. The perception of being non-participants.participants.

3. The perception of being overly rigid.3. The perception of being overly rigid.

Other group members who believed thatOther group members who believed that

Negative Traits (cont.)Negative Traits (cont.)

any member of the group who did not any member of the group who did not have any of these traits would hinder have any of these traits would hinder the accomplishment of the goal(s).the accomplishment of the goal(s).

The Fatal Flaws of The Fatal Flaws of Leadership/McCall and Leadership/McCall and

LombardoLombardo1. Insensitive to others: abrasive, 1. Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating, bullying style.intimidating, bullying style.

2. Cold, aloof, arrogant.2. Cold, aloof, arrogant.

3. Untrustworthy.3. Untrustworthy.

4. Overly ambitious: always thinking 4. Overly ambitious: always thinking of next job, playing politics.of next job, playing politics.

5. Having specific performance 5. Having specific performance problems with the business.problems with the business.

Fatal FlawsFatal Flaws

6. Unable to delegate or build a 6. Unable to delegate or build a team-over management.team-over management.

7. Unable to staff effectively.7. Unable to staff effectively.

8. Unable to think strategically.8. Unable to think strategically.

9. Unable to adapt to boss with 9. Unable to adapt to boss with different style.different style.

10. Over dependent on advocate or 10. Over dependent on advocate or mentor.mentor.

The most frequent cause for The most frequent cause for destruction was insensitivity to destruction was insensitivity to others, but the most serious was others, but the most serious was untrustworthiness. untrustworthiness.

Attitudinal ApproachesAttitudinal Approaches

The main period of the additional The main period of the additional approaches to leadership occurred approaches to leadership occurred between 1945 with Ohio State and between 1945 with Ohio State and Michigan studies.Michigan studies.

During the 1960s the development of During the 1960s the development of the Managerial Grid added to the the Managerial Grid added to the study of Attitudinal Approachesstudy of Attitudinal Approaches

Ohio State Leadership Ohio State Leadership StudiesStudies

Initiated in 1945 by the Bureau of Initiated in 1945 by the Bureau of Business Research at The Ohio State Business Research at The Ohio State University.University.

Narrowed the description of Narrowed the description of leadership behavior to two leadership behavior to two dimensions.dimensions.

1. Initiating structure1. Initiating structure

2. Consideration2. Consideration

Initiating StructureInitiating Structure

Refers to “a type of leadership Refers to “a type of leadership behavior that describes the extent to behavior that describes the extent to which a leader is task oriented and which a leader is task oriented and directs subordinates’ work activities directs subordinates’ work activities toward goal achievement.” toward goal achievement.”

ConsiderationConsideration

Refers to “a type of leader behavior Refers to “a type of leader behavior that describes the extent to which a that describes the extent to which a leader is sensitive to subordinates, leader is sensitive to subordinates, respects their idea and feelings, and respects their idea and feelings, and establishes mutual trust.” establishes mutual trust.”

Michigan Leadership StudiesMichigan Leadership Studies

In 1945 researchers at the University In 1945 researchers at the University of Michigan conducted leadership of Michigan conducted leadership studies.studies.

Studies identified two concepts:Studies identified two concepts:

1. Employee Orientation1. Employee Orientation

2. Production Orientation2. Production Orientation

Employee OrientationEmployee Orientation

Leader emphasized the relationships Leader emphasized the relationships aspect of their job.aspect of their job.

Leader felt that everyone was Leader felt that everyone was important, took an interest in important, took an interest in everyone, and accepted their everyone, and accepted their individuality and personal needs.individuality and personal needs.

Production OrientationProduction Orientation

Leader emphasized production and Leader emphasized production and the technical aspects of the job.the technical aspects of the job.

Employees seen as tools to Employees seen as tools to accomplish the goals of the accomplish the goals of the organization. organization.

Group Dynamics StudiesGroup Dynamics Studies

Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, found through the Research Center found through the Research Center of Group Dynamics at the University of Group Dynamics at the University of Michigan, that group objectives fall of Michigan, that group objectives fall into one of two categories:into one of two categories:1. The achievement of some specific 1. The achievement of some specific group goal.group goal.2. The maintenance or strengthening 2. The maintenance or strengthening of the group itself.of the group itself.

Cartwright and ZanderCartwright and Zander

The type of behavior involved in goal achievement is The type of behavior involved in goal achievement is illustrated by these examples: The manager “initiates illustrated by these examples: The manager “initiates action. . .keeps members’ attention on the goal. . .clarifies action. . .keeps members’ attention on the goal. . .clarifies the issue and develops a procedural plan.”the issue and develops a procedural plan.”

On the other hand, typical behaviors for group maintenance On the other hand, typical behaviors for group maintenance are characterized by a manager who “keeps interpersonal are characterized by a manager who “keeps interpersonal relations pleasant. . .arbitrates disputes. . .provides relations pleasant. . .arbitrates disputes. . .provides encouragement. . .gives the minority a chance to be encouragement. . .gives the minority a chance to be heard. . . Stimulates self-direction. . .and increases the heard. . . Stimulates self-direction. . .and increases the interdependence among members.” Goal achievement interdependence among members.” Goal achievement coincides with task concepts, (production orientation), and coincides with task concepts, (production orientation), and group maintenance parallels the relationship concepts group maintenance parallels the relationship concepts (employee orientation).(employee orientation).

Rensis Likert’s Management Rensis Likert’s Management SystemsSystems

Using the studies found at Michigan State Using the studies found at Michigan State University, Likert found that “supervisors University, Likert found that “supervisors with the best records of performance focus with the best records of performance focus their primary attention on the human their primary attention on the human aspects of their employees’ problems and aspects of their employees’ problems and on endeavoring to build effective work on endeavoring to build effective work groups with high performance goals.groups with high performance goals.

Likert’s System (continued)Likert’s System (continued)

These supervisors were called “employee-These supervisors were called “employee-centered”. Other supervisors who kept centered”. Other supervisors who kept constant pressure on production were constant pressure on production were called “job-centered” and were found more called “job-centered” and were found more often to have low-production sections.often to have low-production sections.

Likert also discovered that high-producing Likert also discovered that high-producing supervisors “make clear to their employees supervisors “make clear to their employees what the objectives are, what needs to be what the objectives are, what needs to be accomplished, and then gives them accomplished, and then gives them freedom to do the job. freedom to do the job.

Likert (continued)Likert (continued)

It is important to note thatIt is important to note that• General supervision did not always result General supervision did not always result

in high production or close supervision in in high production or close supervision in low production.low production.

• General supervision had a higher General supervision had a higher probability of resulting in higher probability of resulting in higher production than did “close supervision”.production than did “close supervision”.

• Managers reported that any company Managers reported that any company would be at a detrimental loss if they would be at a detrimental loss if they suddenly lost half of their human suddenly lost half of their human resources.resources.

Likert (continued)Likert (continued)

As a result of behavioral research As a result of behavioral research studies of numerous organizations, studies of numerous organizations, Likert implemented organizational Likert implemented organizational change programs in various settings. change programs in various settings. These programs were intended to help These programs were intended to help organizations move from fostering organizations move from fostering immature behavior to encouraging and immature behavior to encouraging and developing mature behavior, from developing mature behavior, from emphasizing only hygiene factors to emphasizing only hygiene factors to recognizing and implementing recognizing and implementing motivators.motivators.

Likert’s SystemsLikert’s Systems

System One: Management does not trust nor System One: Management does not trust nor have confidence in employees. The bulk of the have confidence in employees. The bulk of the decision making and goal setting are made at the decision making and goal setting are made at the top and issued down the chain of command. top and issued down the chain of command. Need satisfaction is at the physiological and Need satisfaction is at the physiological and safety levels. The limited management-employee safety levels. The limited management-employee interacting that does take place is usually with interacting that does take place is usually with fear and mistrust. Although the control process is fear and mistrust. Although the control process is highly concentrated in top management, and highly concentrated in top management, and informal organization generally develops in informal organization generally develops in opposition to the goals of the formal organization.opposition to the goals of the formal organization.

LikertLikert

System Two: Management has only condescending System Two: Management has only condescending confidence and trust in employees. Most of the confidence and trust in employees. Most of the decision making and goal setting are made at the decision making and goal setting are made at the top, but many decisions are made within a prescribed top, but many decisions are made within a prescribed framework at lower levels. Reward and some actual framework at lower levels. Reward and some actual or potential punishment are used to motivate or potential punishment are used to motivate workers. Any interaction takes place with some workers. Any interaction takes place with some condescension by management and fear and caution condescension by management and fear and caution by employees. Although the control process is still by employees. Although the control process is still concentrated in top management, some control is concentrated in top management, some control is delegated to middle and lower levels. An informal delegated to middle and lower levels. An informal organization usually develops, but it does not always organization usually develops, but it does not always resist formal organizational goals.resist formal organizational goals.

LikertLikert

System Three: Management has substantial, but System Three: Management has substantial, but not complete confidence and trust in employees. not complete confidence and trust in employees. Broad policy and general decisions are kept at the Broad policy and general decisions are kept at the top, but employees are permitted to make more top, but employees are permitted to make more specific decisions at lower levels. Communication specific decisions at lower levels. Communication moves both up and down the hierarchy. Rewards moves both up and down the hierarchy. Rewards occasionally, punishment and come involvement occasionally, punishment and come involvement are used to motivate workers. Moderate interaction are used to motivate workers. Moderate interaction with a fair amount of confidence and trust. with a fair amount of confidence and trust. Significant aspects of the control process are Significant aspects of the control process are delegated downward, with a feeling of responsibility delegated downward, with a feeling of responsibility at both high and lower levels. An informal at both high and lower levels. An informal organization may develop, but it may either support organization may develop, but it may either support or partially resist goals of the organization. or partially resist goals of the organization.

System Four: Management has complete System Four: Management has complete confidence and trust in employees. Decision confidence and trust in employees. Decision making is widely dispersed throughout the making is widely dispersed throughout the organization, although well integrated. organization, although well integrated. Communication flows not only up and down the Communication flows not only up and down the hierarchy, but among peers. Workers are hierarchy, but among peers. Workers are motivated by participation and involvement in motivated by participation and involvement in developing economic rewards, setting goals developing economic rewards, setting goals improving methods and appraising progress improving methods and appraising progress toward goals. Employee and management toward goals. Employee and management interaction is strong and a high degree of trust interaction is strong and a high degree of trust exits. All social forces support efforts to achieve exits. All social forces support efforts to achieve stated organizational goals.stated organizational goals.

Summary of Likerts’ SystemsSummary of Likerts’ Systems

System One is task-oriented, highly System One is task-oriented, highly structured authoritarian management structured authoritarian management style.style.

System Four is a relationship-oriented System Four is a relationship-oriented management style based on teamwork, management style based on teamwork, mutual trust and confidence.mutual trust and confidence.

Systems Two and Three are Systems Two and Three are intermediate stages between two intermediate stages between two extremes. extremes.

Research FindsResearch Finds

Based on the definition of the Based on the definition of the leadership process as a function of leadership process as a function of the leader, the followers, and other the leader, the followers, and other stuational variables, a single ideal stuational variables, a single ideal type of leader behavior seems type of leader behavior seems unrealistic.unrealistic.

The Leadership Grid: Robert The Leadership Grid: Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams R. Blake and Anne Adams

McCanse McCanse Point 1,1on the grid: Impoverished Management: Point 1,1on the grid: Impoverished Management:

Exertion of minimum effort to get required work Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain an organization. done is appropriate to sustain an organization. Five different types of leaderships are:Five different types of leaderships are:

Point 1,9: Country Club Management: Thoughtful Point 1,9: Country Club Management: Thoughtful attention to the needs of the people for satisfying attention to the needs of the people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.organization atmosphere and work tempo.

Point 9,1 Authority-Obedience Management: Point 9,1 Authority-Obedience Management: Efficiency in operations results from arranging Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such way that human conditions of work in such way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. elements interfere to a minimum degree.

Point 5,5: Organizational Man Point 5,5: Organizational Man Management: Adequate organization Management: Adequate organization performance is possible through performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get work balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.people at a satisfactory level.

Point 9,9 Team Management: Work Point 9,9 Team Management: Work accomplishment is from committed accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a people; interdependence through a “common stake” in organization “common stake” in organization purpose leads to relationships of purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.trust and respect.

Difference between Leadership Difference between Leadership Grid and the Ohio State Grid and the Ohio State

FrameworksFrameworks““Concern for” is a predisposition or Concern for” is a predisposition or

an attitudinal dimension.an attitudinal dimension.The Leadership Grid is an attitudinal The Leadership Grid is an attitudinal

model that measure the values and model that measure the values and feeling of a manager. The Ohio feeling of a manager. The Ohio State framework attempts to include State framework attempts to include behavioral concepts as wells as behavioral concepts as wells as altitudinal items.altitudinal items.

Is There a Best Style of Is There a Best Style of Leadership?Leadership?

Although many researchers such as Blake Although many researchers such as Blake Mouton, McCanse and McGregor have Mouton, McCanse and McGregor have argued that there is a “BEST” style of argued that there is a “BEST” style of leadership, the latest research finds that leadership, the latest research finds that there is no one best leadership style.there is no one best leadership style.

There has been insufficient evident to There has been insufficient evident to support a “best” leadership style, however support a “best” leadership style, however that does not mean that the theory that that does not mean that the theory that there is a best style of leadership is not there is a best style of leadership is not valid. It simply means that there is valid. It simply means that there is insufficient evidence to support such insufficient evidence to support such theory. This is because leadership is theory. This is because leadership is basically situational.basically situational.