chapter ii: review of literature section i: monuments -...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
SECTION I: MONUMENTS - A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
What does Monument mean?
Types of Monuments
Kinds of Monuments
Monuments in Tamilnadu
SECTION II: TEMPLES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
What does Temple mean?
Trends in Temple Construction
Structure of a Temple
Economic Significance of Temples
Social Significance of Temples
Educational Significance of Temples
Selected Temples in Tamilnadu
SECTION III: FORTS - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
What does Fort Mean?
Types of Forts
Structure of a Fort
Economic Significance of Forts
Social Significance of Forts
Educational Significance of Forts
Selected Forts in Tamilnadu
SECTION IV: PALACES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
What does Palace Mean?
Structure of a Palace
Economic Significance of Palaces
Social Significance of Palaces
Educational Significance of Palaces
Selected Palaces in Tamilnadu
SECTION V: HISTORY CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS -A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
What is History?
What does Curriculum Mean?
Objectives of Teaching History
History Curriculum at School Level
SECTION VI: RELATED STUDIES
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter is given an account of the related
literature under six sections as noted below.
SECTION I : MONUMENTS - A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
SECTION II TEMPLES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
SECTION III : FORTS - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
SECTION IV : PALACES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
SECTION V : HISTORY CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS -A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
SECTION VI : RELATED STUDIES
SECTION I: MONUMENTS - A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
WHAT DOES MONUMENT MEAN?
Monument means, it is well known, anything of that
preserves the memory of an event or a person.
It is also defined that monument is any structure as a
Lomb-stone building, tablet errected to the memory of a
person or an event, an ancient record and any achievement of
lasting value.
Some view that monuments are tomb building in memory of
dead-man.
In other sense, monument is considered as to build
something in stone. It has always been a favourite way of
keeping alive the memory of a person and an event.
Some times monument building serves a practical purpose
as well - for example the pyramids of Egypt were both the
monuments to the kings who built them and coverings to their
tombs.
Some times a monument has no purpose beyond the
embellishment of a public place.
Greek monuments most commonly took the form of statues.
There were also sculptured tombs, small Monuments
commemorating the winners of athletic and musical contests.
Monument of Lysicrats (B.C.335) is the best example.
Roman people commemorated their great men and their
military victories by errecting monuments.
Arc-De-Triumph in Paris was erected in 1806 AD. The
Marble Arch London originally stood at the entrance of
Buckingham Palace, which is the adoption of the Roman Triple
Arch type.
Thus monument means the symbol of memory of any
phenomenon.
TYPES OF MONUMENTS
Statues, Fountains, Tombs, Triumphal Arches, Pillars of
Victories, Temples, Forts, Architectural Buildings, Musical
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Pillars, Encarved Caves, Churches, Mosques and Palaces are
considered as the different types of monuments.
KINDS OF MONUMENTS
Monuments could be classified as the monuments under the
earth and the monuments on the surface of the earth.
Monuments under the earth are found out by the efforts
of the Archaeological officials. The great ruined cities
like Mohanjadaro and Harappa had been found from the earth.
They served to understand the ancient conditions of the
people.
During the metal age, the people burned their dead in
big jars called Mudhumakkal Thalis with things used for
performing their last rites. Over the Mudhumakkal Thalis,
stone monuments were also errected.
Other archaeological findings tell us that these people
burned the dead and worshipped their Gods with rituals.
Monuments in Tamilnadu reveal the evergreen memory of a
person or an event. Tamilnadu has a lot of monuments from the
early period to date. From the Sangam Age, it is notable,
the statues made of granite stone, victory arches and victory
pillars are considered as the best monuments that we have.
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Literally it is clear that for adorning the adventurous
deed of the warriors in the battle field, there built
braveous stone, in Tamil word Veerakal or Nadukal in the
heart of the city or village.
The great Tamil Epic Silappadhikaram speaks about the
Chera king Neduncheraladhan's Northern expedition upto
Himalayas to bring stone to erect a statue for Kannaki Devi
or Mangala Devi and he built a temple at Pathinikottam on the
top of Elakicaimalai. The Chola King Karikalan built the
Kallanai Dam on the river Kaveri near Trichirapalli.
Through the monuments dotted in Tamilnadu, one can
understand the political, social, economic, religious and
cultural conditions of the State.
The primary purpose of monuments in learning History is
to give definitions or forms to visual imaginary. Monuments
are direct representations of reality and make their own
appeal to the eyes. With clear visualisation, the primary
purpose of monuments in the History is fulfilled. The sense
of reality is emphasised, monuments stimulate imaginary as
well as thought, observation, analysis, comparison and
classification of data.
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The natural tastes and interests of the students can be
inferred from psychology, they can be observed in operation
and they can be tested by experiments.
Monuments play a vital role in learning History.
History should begin with what is near in time and space and
produced by gradual state to what is remote. One can learn
History by observing the monuments placed near his village or
city. Then the subject matter could be developed to the
world level to what is the remote.
MONUMENTS IN TAMILNADU
The traces of the people of pre historic period in
Tamilnadu are to be seen in the stone implements and
Kistvaens or grave or Megalithic grave found in some
districts of Tamilnadu.
Archaeological findings found in Athichanallur in
Tuticorin District is considered as the biggest findings in
Tamilnadu. Iron implements and ornamentals made of gold and
broze were found here. Such findings were found at
Pallavaram, Korrali (near Madras) and Vada Madurai.
The Kistvaens or Megalithic graves consist of chambers
usually 6 feet long, 4 feet broad and 3 feet deep walled,
roofed and floored with large slabs of roughly hewn stone and
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sometimes surrounded by one or more circles of stone slaps
set up on. Inside the graves are generally found bone,
pottery and weapons made of iron. It is doubtful that these
are the tombs of the chieftains.
Megalithic grave had two types, the one was cave circle
and the another convex circle.
Carbon 14, the chemical test proves the age of these
graves as 1000 B.C.
These graves are found in Sangam Medu in South Arcot
District and in Chanur, Amirthamangalam and Kunnathur (all
three in Chengalput District). It is noted well that
Chengalput District had 200 megalothic graves here and there.
Stone age precious gems like Agate, Chart and Jaspar are
found in Sawerpuram in Tuticorin District.
From the earliest times, Tamilnadu was strong-hold of
the people of various religions. Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism were well influenced in those period. In 5th century
A.D. there was a Sangarama, a Buddhist Vikar in Kanchipuram.
It is also mentioned that there is a Stupa about 100 feet
high built by Asoka Raja.
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Another noted monument of that period was the big
Buddhist monastery built at Kanchipuram by Illankilli, the
brother of the Chola King Todukalar Killi.
There were some hundred Sangaramas, the Buddhist vikars
and 10,000 Buddhist priests in Kanchipuram to propagate
Buddhism among Tamilnadu.
These monuments of Buddhists should have been
constructed by early Pallava Kings who ruled the country at
that time. The revival of Saivism and Vaishnavism is perhaps
the chief cause of the disappearance of Buddhist monuments.
There is no evidence to show the Buddhism was spread in
Tamilnadu before the times of Asoka, the Mouriya Empire of
Megadha. The importance of Buddhism in the ancient Tamilnadu
specially at Tondaimandalam is also testified by Manimekalal,
the great Tamil epic of Seethalai Sathanar. It points out
the names of early Pallava Kings as Buddhavarman and
Buddayakura.
The Himalayan expedition made by Senkuttuvan, the early
Chera King was remarkable and praise worthy. He conquered the
northern kingdoms. He brought a stone from the Himalayas to
make an idol of Kannaki, the embodiment of Chastity. He
defeated enemies, carried this stone on their heads after
purifying it with holy waters of the ganges.
At Pathinikottam, Senkuttuvan built the temple which was
considered as the best monument in the early Tamil History.
Silapathikaram states that temples were erected in several
parts of the Tamil country to enshrine the image of Kannagi.
Karikalan, the well known Chola King, invaded against
Elam (Ceylon) and captured it. He built a well protected
fort at Kaveripattinam, his capital city with the help of the
labour force of 12,000 singalees who were brought to Chola
kingdom after conquering Ceylon.
One of the most importnat ancient customs of Tamilagam
as revealed by the inscriptions is the building of shrines
and temples over the tombs or in honour of the dead.
The Tamil country abounds in hero-stones planted with
inscriptions to celebrate the fame of military men, who have
given their lives in fighting to the last with their enemies
even when the whole army was put to fight thinking it better
to die in battle-field than brooke the ignominy attending a
flight. Similar references to this kind of monuments are
found in Purapporul Venbamalai, Tolgappiyam and
Malaipadukadarn.
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SECTION II: TEMPLES - A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
WHAT DOES TEMPLE MEAN?
It is a well known fact that temples are being
considered as the worshipping place or holy and sacred place.
It is believed that God glorifies His grace to the people.
Aalayam means Atma surrenders or get together in that place.
Temple otherwise is called as Koil. The word koil can be
split into Ko + eil - Ko means living place for God, eil -
living. God living in that place, is Koil.
During the Sangam age, Koil is meant for some important
places, seemed to be a shrine or garbagrika. It is stressed
in the Tamil great epic Sillapathikaram of Ilanyovadikal.
Thirumular, the greatest Sittar, in his work,
"Thjrumanthiram" stresses the view that koil means 'shrine'.
The great Saivasaint Thirunavukkurasar (570-655 AD) supported
this view of Thirumoolar. Laterly, the word 'Thiru' is
added and mentioned as 'Thirukoil'.
In short, temple is a place where God dwells and graces
to the devotees. It is a holy place. It is noted that the
holy place for worshipping is in English having six letters.
The Hindu holy worshipping place is TEMPLE, it has six
letters likely CHURCH, MOSQUE, PAGODA and CHAPEL have six
letters and these are all the holy places to Christ, Islam,
Buddhist and Prayer house of English people respectively.
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Temple means in French, a protestant church, a place
dedicated to God.
TRENDS IN TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION
The ancient people worshipped natural forces like
Thunder, Fire, Rain, Lightening, Sky and Land as God. At
that period there were no temples. In the early period
temples were built as a human house in the cave of the hills.
The worshipping of Mumoorthis, Viz. Siva, Vishnu and
Brahma changed the style of constructing temples in a natural
surrounding. So the temples are situated in a very fine and
evergreen of plantains, coconuts, and acrea palms with a tank
of crystal water just in front of them.
The God and Goddess are worshipped in the form of human
figure, made of stone, wood and clay. Likely the
construction of the temples was changed and built them with
clay and mortar. In some places, it was used thick grown
wood to build the temples. Such types of temples could be
seen in Kerala. Sri Natarajar Temple at Chidambaram is built
with wood. Sangam literature stress the fact that in those
periods, temples were built with the use of costly wood like
Teak, Red tree and Sandal. The drawback in the use of trees
in constructing temples is the destruction caused by fire.
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To avoid this drawback, clay was used in building the
temples. This type of temples were destroyed by a heavy
flood and rain. To remove this destruction, fired bricks and
mortar were used to build the temples.
It is literary known that Kochankannan, the Chola King
built 70 storeyed building for the God Lord Siva in 4th
Century AD. This building was built with the use of fired
bricks and mortar. Soon day by day that majestic temple wa.s
demolished by natural forces.
To avoid this drawback, Mahendravarman I (600-630 AD),
the Pallava King, engraved the rock into a huge hail and
concised pillars with artistic value and built cave temples.
The rock cut temples, he introduced, were built with the use
of wood, mortar, metal and bricks. His inscription says the
glories of rock cut temples.
The trends in building the temples had been changed
during the period of Narasingha Varman I, the pallava king
who built them on a single stone rock. For best example, we
can see the seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram.
Big boulders of granite stones were used to build the
temples during the period of Raja Simha I. This style of
building the temples was followed by the Cholas and the
Pandyas in all over Tamilagam and Ceylon in later period.
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The size and capacity of the temples were increased
several fold by the ever new additions of spacious halls, of
the numerable shrines for minor deities erected in the
covered piragaharam or corridor. Later on the corridors were
built with hundreds of pillars on which are found sculptures
and statues.
The next and important trend was, the construction of a
big tower or gopuram which attracts the eye of the
travellers, devotees and visitors from a distance. Later on
fine arts like Sculpture, Paintings, Drawings and
Architecture were developing in the temple premises that have
revealed the potential means of learning history.
The 9th century AD is considered the golden age of
cholas in building a plenty of temples in Tamilnadu. The big
temple (Sri Peruvudaiyar Temple) at Thanjavur and the Gangai
Konda Oholeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by
Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 AD) are considered as the crowns
in the architectural history of temples in Tamilnadu.
The kings of Vijaya Nagar who ruled over Tamilnadu, had
extended the existing temples by building high towers
(Gopurams) and constructing Mathilsuvar with granite stones.
From the period of Kulodhunga Chola II, four towers were
built in four directions on the entrance of the temples. He
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began the style of constructing four towers on the entrance
of the temples. Similarly four towers were built at
Chidambaram temple in the 12th and 13th centuries. The
basement of the tower was built with granite stones and the
top seven storeyed tower was built with bricks and mortar.
Its height is 100 feet.
Then this style of constructing four towers was extended
to Kancheepuram, Thiruvannamalai and Madurai. It is
generally known that the height of these towers are more than
150 feet. The biggest and the highest tower in Asia is the
tower of Srirangam built by Geer Swamigal recently. Its
height is 236 feet having 13 storeys.
It is needless to say that the big and broad granite
compound wall (Mathil Suvar), Hundred Pillared Mandapam,
Thousand Pillared Mandapam, Entrance Mandapam and the Inner
Mandapam are the later additional developments in the history
of temples in Tamilnadu.
Further it is known that temples had been built for the
men of remarkable deeds who had earned an admiration and
respect of the people during their life time.
The earliest reference to a temple built on the tomb or
samathi of a dead person is perhaps the one at Satyaveedu in
Ponneri Taluk of Chengalput District.
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Likely Melpadi inscription of Raja Raja I, the Chola
King, states that the temple of Arjuneswara was errected as
Pallipadai (a memorial over the remains) to the king who died
at Arur. Epigraphy says that the elder sister of Raja Raja I
had built the temple for Ponmaligai Dunchina Devar, the king
who died in a golden palace. Vijayala Chola (850-871 AD)
built the temple of Nisum Pasuthini in memory of his father.
Like the kings, sittars had been burned in the tomb or
samathi on which temples have been built, worshipped and
performed gurupoojas. The names of Sittars and the places of
their samathis are listed below.
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Ii
Name of Sittar
Kumbamuni
Thirumoolar
Thirumoolavarkkan
Thirumoola Nokkam
Sattaimuni
Pathanchal ±
Ramar Deva
Alunkannar
Narathar
Markandeyar
Machamuni
Place of Samathi
Kumbakonam
Chidambaram
Nedunkundram
Melaichidambaram
Sirkazhi
Rameswaram
Alagar Koil
Nagappattinam
Thiruvidaimaruthur
Karuvainallur
Thiruvanaikkal
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Dhanvanthiri
Vaideeswarankoil
Bogar Thirukalukundram
Kamalamuni
Mad ur a I
Boganathar Palani
Agapei Sittar Thiruvaiyaru
STRUCTURE OF A TEMPLE
The earliest form of a temple consisted three parts and
they are the Garpagraka, the Antarala mandapam and the Muka
mandapam. The main deities were installed sacredly in the
Garpagraka which is the inner most apartment and holy and
purified place of the temple. The devotees for worshipping
gathered together in the Antarala and Mukha mandapams. These
three parts were known by Traiyanga. In the outside walls of
those mandapams, there were niches provided to accommodate
some other principal deities.
Generally there are mainly two types of temples built in
those days. They are siva temples and vishnu temples.
- In the central shrine of a Siva temple, a linga is
generally found. The linga and Avudai within which it is
fixed, represent the purusa (the universal spirit) and
Prakriti (Primival matter) and thus establish the idea of the
evolution of the manifested world by their combination
resulting in a variety of forms.
This idea is prominently brought into the minds of the
innumerable devotees that stand before the shapeless image
wrapt in silence, perceiving how inseparably soul and matter
are united together in this world of changes.
In the central shrine of Vishnu temples, there are
invariably placed huge sculptures of one form or another of
the several manifestations of Vishnu with a number of
attendant deities.
The puranic stories regarding Siva and Vishnu are
picturesquely delineated in the images enshrined in these
temples, and the devotees are made to profit them.
The riches accommodated in them and the various forms
assumed by the Almighty furnish a visible explanation of the
fund of knowledge stored in ancient lore. Such are
Lingodhara, Dakshiamoorthy, Arthanariswar, Mahishasura-
mardhini and the like.
The Book "Manasaram" points out that there are eight
parts of the temples. They are 1. Tower or Gopuram 2.
Mathilsuvar or big wall 3. Suttralai 4. Parivara temples
5. Vimanam 6. Aka Mandapam 7. Maha Mandapam and 8. Muka
Mandapam.
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The basic part in constructing temple is 1. Peedam
(Aathitanam) 2. Suvar or Kal (Sthambam) 3. Roof or Kurai
(Prasthavam) 4. Kaluthu (Greevam) 5. Thalal (Sigaram) and
8. Kudam (Sthubi).
The six parts can be compared with human organs that
Adi, Kaal, TholL, Kalluthu, Stomach and Mudi. It is a
historical fact that the origin and extension of constructing
the temple from the early date to date have taught the lesson
to human being to realise himself in his life. The mortal
men became immortal men and eternal divinity by constructing
these temples. To live with peace and purified life, one
must have good mind and health. For attaining these, our
ancestors had built temples on the bank of the rivers or on
the top of the hills.
Tower/Gopuram
In a temple, tower is an important part as a head to the
man. The salient features of the tower of a temple is
discussed herewith.
Tower is generally considered as the main part of a
temple in Tamilnadu. They have rich artistic sculptures and
the scenery of puranic stories. Temple tower is referred to
our Tamilnadu State emblem. Temple Gopuram is the foot and
the Garpagraka is the head.
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The structure of the temple gopuram is found clearly
described in two books, viz., "Mayamatharn" and "Kasiyabha
Silba Sastram'.
As mayamatham explains, there are 15 types of gopuram.
1. Srikaram 2. Rathi Kantham 3. Kantha Vijayam
4. Vijaya Visalagam 5. Visalayam 6. Vibratheekantham
7. Srikandham 8. Srikesam 9. Kesavalingam
10. Swasthigam 11. Thisasu vasthigam
12. Marthasam 13. Manthara Kandagam
14. Srivisalam 15. Sathurmugham
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLES
The temples in Tamilnadu do not serve as the worshipping
places but also have economic significance.
Epigraphies found in the temples mention about the
donated villages and lands. They give a clear picture of
revenues from lands and point out the expenditure. There was
a regular budget system in the temples. They were concised
on the walls.
Expenditure must have been incurred for the daily
poojas, maintenance of the temples, wages to the workers and
celebrating grand festivals.
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Revenue from the lands, offerings in the Hundials and
Tulabaram are mentioned in the Edicts.
A record of the Rajendra I (1010-1045 AD) found at
Kolar, registers that there were eighteen classes of workers
in the temples for performing the temple services.
The village shepherds were left in the chart of temple
lands and livestocks. Bound by agreements they had to bring
to the temple premises, the ghee for burning the temple
lamps, rice, vegetables and fruits for performing the poojas,
Sandalpastes, incense scents like Pachaikarpuram, musk and
rose water. The requirements of the temples were given by
them according to the terms of contract.
The Sirpur inscription registers a grant of villages for
the maintenance of Aim Houses, the repairs of breaks or
cracks in the temples and the supporting of the servants of
the sanctuary.
Temple was the busiest part of all places in a big
village or town. From the early dawn till midnight, one
could see crowds of people rich and poor there gathered from
far and near. Commerce and Trade were practiced in the
temple premises. Barter system was in practice.
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Tulabaram is one of the main sources of income of the
temple. So it needs a mention here. Tulabaram was performed
by the ancient kings and Hiranyagarbha ceremonies which
attracted the crowds of people from all parts of the kingdom.
By the offerings through Tulabaram, the temples were earning
a large amount to administer.
The greatest Chola King Raja Raja I had his Tulabara
ceremony performed in the Sri Sivayoganandha Swamy Temple at
Tiruvisalur in his 28th year of reign in 1013 AD.
It is stated in the Tamil work, 'Kovil Olugu' that
Jatavarma Sundara Pandyan (1251-71 AD) the greatest of Pandya
King built Tulabara Mandapam in the Srirangam Temple. He
had his Tulabara Ceremony performed there several times.
Many of the Vijaya Nagara Kings had the same ceremony
done in the temples at Srirangam and Kancheepuram.
Almost in all temples visited by the South Indian kings,
special festival, called after their own names were ordered
to be conducted annually on the asterism of their birthday
and rich endowments were made for them.
SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLES
No doubt it is known that Tamilnadu has the largest
number of the temples in India. From sangam age to date, the
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temples are closely related to the human societies. Temples
serve as centres for the developement of the feeling of
integration among the people by removing the social
differences and caste differences. It serves as the centre
for village-town intergration.
From Tamil literature, it can be pointed out, that the
temples are developed by the human societies as well the
human societies are developed by the temples. It is clear
that temples are considered as the inner and outer growth of
human societies.
The temples had served as the free food centre. After
the pooja performance was over, either prasadams or meals had
been distributed to the people. Midday meals had been
provided in the temple premises. During the flood season or
drought season, people were lodged in the temple campus.
Moreover the temple was the principal feeding house of the
villages. All strangers, acestics and learned men were fed
in the temple. Fruits, ghee and sugar in large quantity were
used. People were served with boiled preparations from raw-
vegetables by the addition of condiments such as pepper,
pulses, mustard, turmeric, cumin, salt tarmarind along with
few others fried in ghee. Chillies did not go into their
preparations. Asafoetida was largely consumed.
A record of the . 12th century AD, states that a big
hospital existed at Thirumukkudal in Chengalput District
provided with a number of beds for the sick, with nurses to
attend on them, with men to fetch fuel and medicinal herbs,
with a good stock of manya patent remedy and with doctors and
others. There is not the least doubt that other temples of
the south had similar provisions. Thus temples were
benefitted to provide medicines and to serve as hospitals.
It is known from the inscriptions.
Temple served as the court. In the Mahamandampam, cases
were heard and punishments were given. Criminals were
allowed to ask forgiveness before the God by promising that
he would not do it in future. It is called Nayastala.
Judgements were declared in the name of God.
Temples also served as protecting places during foreign
invansion. The people used to stay inside the temple and
main gate would be closed. The main doors were fixed with
pointed iron kumil which prevented the elephants to dash
against the doors. Around the temple big and strong
fortified enclosed walls made of granite stones were built.
Moreover the high tower was benefitted to watch the enemy
from distance.
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EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPLES
In olden times, the temples served as the centres for
the development of Primary Education. At that time
recitation method of learning had been adopted. Vedic hymns
and devotional songs were recited in the temple premises by
the pupils at the age of 3 to 10.
In the temple in a spacious Mandapam so constructed as
to accommodate a large concourse of people, sitting on a
pedestal in a prominent place, a famous scholar chanted the
hymns of vedas and expounded them to his ardent hearers.
The Dharma-Sastra, emboding the rules of right conduct, the
puranas, grammar rhetoric, logic, astrology, astronomy,
medicine and other special sciences were taught to those who
thronged to learn them. In the temples at Thiruvorriyur,
Vyakkaraka, Somasiddhanta and Paanini sciences were taught.
There were references also to the recital and teaching of
Prabhakara, Rudra, Yamala, Purana, Sivadharma, Panchancja and
Bharata. Lands were granted to learned scholars and their
future generations as Vedaviruti, Bhattaviruti, Vaidyaviruti
and Archanaviruti and the like.
Among the Tamil hymns sung in the temples, were may note
those of Devaram, Thiruvasagam and Nalayiraprabhandham.
References to the recital of Thiruppallandu, Thiruvaymoli,
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Thiruchchalal, Thiruvembavai and Thiruppadiam are often found
in inscriptions.
From the inscriptions in the temple walls, we can
justify the chronological facts of the ancient Tamil kings.
Engineering and technological aspects of knowledge have
been developing in construction of the temples. In many
temples Yogakundam were built to perform yogas during the
festival times. The Yogakundams were built as per the basic
knowledge of Tricnometry and Geometry.
Temples had served as the seat of developing fine arts
like music, playing musical instruments, dance, sculpture
and paintings.
Music
Vedic hymns and devotional songs like devaram,
Thiruvasagam and Nalayira Prabhandham were sung with
varieties of Rahas in the temple when the poojas were
performed.
The chola inscriptions of Thanjavur insist that Rajaraja
Chola of Thanjavur has arranged a music competition in
connection with his birthday on Sathaya Star Day. At that
time he sang himself the songs of Devaram with sweet Raha and
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pann. He spent a large amount of funds adorning the musician
in the temples. His inscription points out the two words
related to the music, devaram padaran and udukkai thatti
which are not at present in usage.
Among the musical instruments that were in use in
ancient times, mathalam, karadigai, segandi, kaimani, parai,
sangu, yal, veenai, kulal, udukkai, kudamula and kalam need
mentioning. Nathaswaram, Nagara band and bell are the some
other musical instruments that occupy the dominant role in
the temples.
Villupattu, in Kanyakumari District, Kaaniyan koothu in
Tirunelveli District, Pavaikoothu in Thanjavur District,
Lavani in Ramnad District and Therukoothu in all over
Tamilnadu are playing vital role during the festival times in
Tamilnadu Temples. They convey the historical message and
incidents in a rhythmatic way with action. These are all
well known potentials to the history learning students.
Vellore copper inscription reads that the pailava king
Nandivarma III had donated three villages to meet out the
expenditure incurred for the welfare of the devotional
singers at Vallam Temple in South Arcot District.
Kathakalasebam, in the temple premises had developed the
art of music from the early times.
34
Paintings
In the temple walls, many kinds of paintings and drawing
were drawn and painted by the Tamil kings. The pallava kin,
Mahendra I beautified the cave of sithannavasal by colourful
paintings. Rajarajachola I had arranged to brush the walls
of Garpayrakam in Big Temple, Thanjavur with coloured
painting in a marvelous style.
Dance
In the temple of the southern India, there was
invariably a spacious ranga Mandapam. On almost all days,
dancing was practised here and on special occassions dramas
were staged. The dancing practised in the temple premises
consisted of several varieties of popular amusements
conveying religious instruction. The dramas were divided
into acts and scenes.
The art of Bharatanatya has been developing in the
temple premises. Many dancing posed sculptures are engraved
in the temples. A typical example is that in Sri Meenakshi
Temple at Madurai, one can look at the views of the dancing
sculptures in a big size. These dancing posed sculptures are
very useful to the learners/dancers in Bharatanatya.
35
The Nataraja Idols in Siva temples and the Kaalinga
Narthana of Krishna Idols in Vishnu temples are notified
dancing poses.
Silappathikaram, the great Tamil Epic by Ilanyovadigal,
points out the thirteen kinds of dances performed by Mathavi
in the temple premises.
The role of temples in Indian life can be known clearly
from the flow chart presented as Fig.l.
SELECTED TEMPLES IN TAMILNADU
The locality of the selected temples is pointed out in
Fig. 2.
1. Susindhiram Temple
In Kanyakumari District, Susindhiram Temple is the
oldest temple which is dedicated to Lord Siva, Vishnu and
Brammati. Hinduism speaks of three Gods named as Mummoorthis.
These three are in one form at Susindhiram. The name of the
Lord is Dhanumalayar. Danu refers to Lord Sivan, Mal refers
to Lord Vishnu and Ayan refers to Lord Brammah whose duties
are destructing, protecting and creating respectively.
Susi means holy or purify. Indiran came here and
purified himself and so it is called as Susindran. The
36
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37
-4
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Fig-2. Locality of rp1
38
extent of the temple is 15 acres. In front of the temple is
a big magnificiant tower, the height of which is about 135
feet.
The other parts of the temple are Shenbagaraman
Mandapam, Unchal Mandapam, Kulasekara Mandapam, Vasantha
Mandapam, Alankara Mandapam and Navagraha Mandapam.
The Kulasekara Mandapam is embellished with musical
pillars like that of Madurai and Tirunelveli temples.
Twelve rasis and nine planets are found carved in the
Navagraha Mandapam to reveal the glorious astrology. Like
Coutrallam, here is a Chitra Sabha having mural paintings of
minor deities. The ancient place in this temple is
Konraiyadi Sannathi.
The temple is an Architectural monument to reveal the
conditions of ancient period in Kanyakumari District. The 18
feet high Hanuman Statue is found in the Piraharam. A big
nandi, made of mortar and bricks is considered as one of the
biggest in India. Its height is 12 feet.
It is a wonder that one granite sculpture is found for
Thirumalai Nayaker, whose nose hole is minutely bored till
the head. Likely if it can be inserted a wire though the
right ear hole of the statue, it can be taken out through the
left. It is also an architectural work during his period.
39
There are a lot of Epigraphies related to this temple.
The oldest epigraphies belong to the period of Prantaga I,
the chola king (907-953 AD) and Raja Raja I (985-1013 AD).
From the edicts found in this temple, historian can
understand that the control of Suseendram got changed into
the hands of Parantaga Pandyan and then to Venadu Kings. The
Venadu King Veerakerelan renovated the temple and named the
place as Veerakerala Sathurvethi Mangalam. In later period,
Thirumalai Naiyaker, the ruler of Madura too renovated the
temple. Thus it stands as the best monument in Kanyakumari
District.
2. Thiruvattaru Temple
It is in Kanyakumari District, in which Paraliyaru flows
in a circular shape and so called as Vattaru. Add the word
Thiru - Thiruvattaru.
In sangam age Elinlyathan, the Velir chief ruled this
land and Thiruvattaru was the capital. This is known from
the stanza 396 of Purananuttru paadal by Mangudikilar.
The main deity is Lord Perumal in a lying pose on the
counch of serpent named as Adhikesava Perumal. Nammaiwar and
Pillai Perumal Iyenkar have adorned the glory of Lord
Perumal. After visiting and praying Thiruvattaru Perumal,
40
Sri Krishna Saidanyar wrote the great work, "Sri Brama
Samhidai
The design and appearance of the Padmanaba Swami temple
at Thiruvananthapuram and the Adhikesavaperumal temple at
Thiruvattaru are the same. The inscriptions found in this
temple belonged to the period between the 11th and the 18th
century.
In front of the central shrine, there is a single stone
Mandapam in a square shape, raised on a platform and its
height is 3 feet, It is built by Verra Raja Ravi Varman in
16th century. His brother Adhithya Varman floored the
prakaram with granite stones. At the entrance, Dhuvarabalar
statues were installed by his younger brother Rama Varman.
At the entrance of the temple is a big and huge mandaparn
named [Jhaya Marthanda Mandapam built by the Venadu Prince
Veera tidhya Marthanda Varman in 1174 A.D. The architectural
work in the mandapam is in Kerala style. It is noticed that
the marriage procession of Vinayakar is curved on the wood in
the mandapam.
Artistic treasures made of stone and wood could be seen
in the temple. In the outer corridor, there are 222 pillars
on which the idols of Deepalakshmi in variety of dresses and
in different jewels are found artistically engraved.
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Udhaya Marthanda Mandapam, single stone mandapam and
Pall mandapam are the important additions constructed by
different kings in different times.
The architectural work combines the style of Tamil and
Kerala that can be seen in this temple.
3. Courtallam Temple
Courtallam Temple is a famous Saiva Shrine in the
western part of Tirunelveli District. The temple is
dedicated to Sri Thirukutralanathar. The name of Amman deity
is Kuzhalvaimozhi Amman, the Devi whose voice is as sweet as
the music of flute.
The temple is conch shaped - peculiarly unlike other
temples which are either squares or rectangles in shape.
Inside the temple, there are three shrines:
Thirukutralanathar in the centre, Kuzhalvaimozhi Amman to his
right and Parasakthi on the left.
The temple contains many inscriptions relating to Chola
and Pandya Kings and their varied services between the 10th
and 15th centuries.
Near the temple is a sub-temple Chitra Sabha (Hall of
Pictures) dedicated to God Nataraja and decorated with mural
42
paintings of deities and devotees, puranic stories and
religious events.
This Sabah is one of the five sabahs, where Nataraja is
on Cosmic Dance with a candour of 'grace' fully pronounced.
In front of tne copper roofed sabah appears a lilly tank with
a heavily ornamented gopuram.
Saints Thirugnanasambandar, Tirunavakarasar, Manicka-
vasagar and Pattinathar have glorified the lord and have
poured forth their feelings of spiritual ecstasy in soul
stirring lyrics.
4. Tenkasi Temple
Tenkasi town and temple were designed and built by
Parakkirama Pandyan on the bank of Chittar flowing from the
hill of Pothigai. The king built his fort at a place called
Vindan Fort. Inscription says asVinthai or Vinthanur. The
king ruled Tenkasi from 1422-1463 AD (41 Years).
Tenkasi temple is dedicated to Lord Kasi Viswanathar
which was built in the period between 1429 and 1446 AD.
The plan, architecture and sculptures of this temple
stand as tangible proof of the genius and talent of the later
Pandya artists. They had preserved the ancient traditions.
They had added innovating features as revealed by the
43
Mahagopuram, the monolithic pillar sculptures and the musical
pillars.
The monolithic pillar sculptures of this temple occupies
an important place among the noted sculptures of Tamilnadu in
the lali Mandapam. There are eight monolithic sculptures. It
is notable that there is the unique form of Nrithamurthi in
Lalata TilaKa pose. It is an awe inspiring and the rare and
elegant manifestation of Krishna playing the flute.
The two sets of musical pillars found in this temple are
another notable feature. They are found in the mandapam of
Central Shrine. The music pillar in the central shrine is
clearly of early period. These clusters of musical columns
produce notes which must provide the percussion accompaniment
for the dancing girls. These beautiful musical pillars could
be compared with those found in the temples of Madural,
Tirunelveli and Suseendram.
The sculptures found in the Thiruvolakka Mandapam are
ten pillars having carved 6 feet high sculptures. Among them
two are men sculptures and the others are the divine idols,
Rathi and Manmadan's sculptures.
The temple has Mahamandapam, Kodi Mandapam, Thiruchuttu
Mandapam, Artha Mandapam, Manimandapam and Pall Mandapam.
In these mandapams one can see Akora Veerabadrar and Agni
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Veerabadhrar like that of in Madura temple; Thirumal,
Sattainathar, Pathanjali, Yali and Panchapandavarkal Silai
are the notable figures.
5. Malaladikurichi Temple
It is in Tirunelveli District near Puliyankudi. This is
the oldest temple that was encarved in the year 637 A.D. by
the Pandian King, Chelian Sendan (620-642 AD).
At the entrance of this cave temple, there are two big
pillars and two semi pillars. The top and the bottom of the
pillars are in the shape of square and the central portion of
the pillar is beautified by eight angled prism. In top
square, there is carved the flower lotus. It is designed as
the pillars of Pallava's cave temple. Gandharvas are
engraved on the leaf of the lotus. Pothigai is figured in a
curving shape and stipped with row by row, which is called as
Tharanga Pothiyai.
A portion called Andharalam is cutup between the
entrance and the Karuvarai. The linga with Avudai is
installed in the Karuvaral facing towards the east. The
Amman Sannathi is in the South. The entrance of the cave
temple is annexed with Mahamandapam. The pillars of this
mahamandapam are carved in the architectural style of the
Cholas. Thus the temp le is a remarkable one explaining the
architectural work of pallavas and cholas.
6. Thirumalaipurara Temple
Thirumalaipuram is near Kadayanallur in Tirunelveli
District. A hill, named as Vannachi Parai, is drilled and
made cave temple faced towards the south. In the western
wall of the cave temple, Karuvara± is carved and dhuvarabalas
statues are engraved in the entrance of the Karuvarai. In the
opposite wall, Vinayakar, Thirumal, Koothaperuman and Brammah
sculptures are curved with beautification. The neck
ornamentals, Kankanankal, Kundalakgal and gopurams are formed
in attractive style to catch one's eyes. It belongs to the
eighteenth century. The structure of the cave temple is
similar to that of pallavas.
7. Krishnapuram Temple
Krishnapuram is a village in Tirunelveli District. The
temple is dedicated to Lord Perurnal named as Sri
Venkatachalapathi. The temple has full of art and
sculptures. It was built in 16th century by Krishnappa
Naikar, who ruled Madurai. The plinth area of the temple is
5 acres.
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47
The temple was constructed under the auspicious
principles of the temple. It has Maha Mandapam, Mani
Mandapam, Artha Mandapam and Garpagrakam. In the temple,
there is a mandapam named Veerappa Naicker Mandapam which is
facing towards Southnorth and looks like a Durbar hail of a
palace. Today also in the mandapam, village cases could be
solved and judged. In the mandapam, there is a pillar. Its
height is more than 10 feet, made in one granite stone.
Wonderful sculptures are engraved adjoined to the pillars. A
Kurathi is carrying a prince, a princess asking prediction
and a prince who carries kurathi in his horse are the best
examples.
In the manimandapam, Rathi and Manmathan sculptures are
engraved. Minute holes are bored in the Karumbuvil of the
manmadan and the nose of Rathi. The. nerves of the men in the
sculptures are clearly exposed and they are the best examples
for the talent of the art of the sculptures found in
Krishnapuram temple. This is considered as one of the best
monuments to the students of history.
8. Tirunelveli Temple
In the centre of Tiruneiveli town is situated the temple
Swami Nellaiappar and Sri Kanthimathi Ambal. There is a
majestic tower on the Swami Neliaiappar Sannathi. To south
of this big and broad tower stands the tower of Sri
Kanthimathi Ambal. These two towers were built by
Muluthukanda Rama pandian and the other important parts of
the temple were constructed by Nindrasir Nedumaran who
reigned in the seventh century AD.
Originally the Nellaippar and Kanthimathi temples were
two independent structures. In 1647 AD, Vadamalaiappa
Piliatyan, a great devotee of Siva, linked the two temples by
building the chain mandapam.
In this chain mandapam, there are beautiful images of
Pachaivadivel, Kasiviswanatha Sattar, Hanumar, Arjuna and
Bhima. To the west of the chain mandapam is much admired
Kumaran Temple. In the another part of western portion of
the chain mandapam is an open space where there is flower
garden. This garden was set up by Thiruvengadakrishna
Mudaliar in 1756 AD.
In the centre of the flower garden is a squared Vasantha
Mandapam with 100 pillars. The Vasantha mandapam has been
rendered with the images of Lord Siva, Sage Agastiya and
other sages and water dripping from the head of the image of
Lord Siva.
In the southern corridor of the Nellaiappar temple are
found the flag stand and rooms for vakanams. On the pillars
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of this corriodor can be seen the images of the Nayak rulers
till the days of Vadamalaiappa Pillaiyan. On the southwest
of this corridor is the Tiruppani Mandapam. In the famous
Arumuganainar temple is situated the peacock vahanam, Valli
and Deivayanai carved out of a single stone magnificiently.
Pillaiyan built this temple.
In the northern corridor of the temple is found a small
gopuram. There is also a small gopuram in the western
corridor. In the eastern corridor are found the beautiful
nandi, the stone sculptures of Pavalakodi, Alli, Manmathan
and Rathi. Kuravan and Kurathi are in the Somavara Mandapam.
It is also known as 'Navarathri Mandapam' . The attractive
features of this somavara mandapam are stone rafters and
stone replicas.
There is an image of Nandhi in white in front of the big
flag stand which was set up in 1555 AD, at the entrance Of
Swami Neilaiappar Sannathi.
Inside the swamy sannathi, one can see the sculptures of
Virabadra, Arjuna and Karna, and the images of Vinayakar and
Lord Murugan. At the southern side of the entrance is the
Nandi Mandapam where there are the images of Nayanmars and
Saint Sekkilar, The Nandi mandapam is said to have been built
in 1654 AD by Sivanthiyappa Nayak.
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50
There is a Manimandapam in the Swamy Nellalappar
Sanriathi which is the best feature. In the manimandapam,
there are the famous musical pillars found in Madural,
Susindram and Tenkasi. Each pillar has a big pillar in the
middle surrounded by 48 small pillars and the whole lot has
been made out of a single stone. When tapped, each pillar
produces musical notes. The manimandapam with its famous
musical pillar was built by Nindrasir Nedumaran in the 17th
century A.D.
In the western corridar,. there is the Tambara Sabha
which is one of the five sabhas where Lord Nataraja had his
cosmic dance. Behind the Tambarasabha is the sandal pasted
Sabapathi. To the west of it is the image of the saivite
devotee Muluthukanda Ramakone. The special feature of this
temple is that the idol of Lord Nataraja is one of the
biggest in Tamilnadu with Nataraja in a dancing pose before
his devotee Karaikkal Tuamaiyar.
It is interesting to find in the eastern corridor, a
small temple built for Kanthimathi Ambal by a muslim anwar
Mauphizkhan, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab of Carnatic.
In the front of Amman Sannathi, there is a beautiful
Unjal Mandapam and the Saivite philosophic concepts are found
explained in its pillars. The Unjal Mandapam is used for
teaching Kolattam to girls for religious discourses and for
teaching Tirumarai to devotees. The unjal mandapam was built
by Cherakulam Piravi Perumal a devotee and Philanthropist.
The Thirukalyana Mandapam or Thousand Pillared Mandapam
is situated in the Amman Sannathi. It is 520 feet length and
63 feet breadth. Near the Unjal Mandapam, there is a sacred
tank which has a flight of steps in its four sides and a
mandapam in the centre of the tank.
The Eastern flight of steps and the mandapam were built
by the Thiruvavaduthurai Aadhinam, the southern side by
Dharmapuram Aadhinam, the western side by Venkatakrishna
Mudaliar, who was the agent of carnatic navab and the
northern side by Dhanappa Mudaliar.
The Ambal temple was built owing to the efforts of
Sundaratholar Pillaiyan. The Prakarams round the Ambal
temple were built partly by Dalavoi Alagappa Mudaliar and
partly by Thirumalalyappa Pillaiyan. Behind the temple is
another tank called as Karumari.
Many stone inscriptions are in the temple which reveal
that the outer wall of the temple was built by Kulasekara
Pandian with the money from war looty. Inscriptions of
Rajendra I and Kulothanga Chola-I are found carved in this
51
temple from which one can learn that at that time Tirunelveli
was part of Chola empire.
Inscription of Maravarman Sundarapandian, refers to the
Lord Nellaiyappa as Udayar and the Ambal Gandhimathi as
Nachiar. The extent of the temple is 850 feet length and 750
feet breadth.
The extent of the south corridor is 387 feet long and 42
feet wide. The western corridor is 295 feet long and 40 feet
breadth. The northern corridor is 387 feet long and 42 feet
wide. The eastern corridor is 295 feet long and 40 feet
broad. The trespassers of the corridors is 17 feet wide. The
Rishaba Mandapam of this temple was built by Sivanthiappa
Nayak in 1654 AD.
The gopuram of Swami Nellaiappar was built in 1620 AD.
The gopuram of Ambal Kanthimathi was built in 1626 AD. Thus
Tirunelveli temple is considered as the best monument in
Tirunelveli district.
9. Bramadesam Temple
Bramadesam or Sathurvethi Mangalam is a village near
Ambasamudram in Tirunelveli District. The temple is
dedicated to Lord Siva named as Sri Kailasanathar Swamy. It
is built by Rajaraja I.
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At the entrance of the temple, there is a 7 storeyed
tower having full of architectural work. This tower was
built by Viswanatha Nayak the ruler of Madurai. At present
most of the idols in the tower are in ruined condition.
Next to the tower there is a huge stone mandapam named
as Nelkuthumpirai where rice is produced by hands to offer
daily Nivethanam and to feed the poor.
Vasantha Mandapam has many pillars and Vasantha festival
was conducted in this mandapam.
The width of the Mathilsuvar is 3 1/2 feet named Allodi
Suvar. There is many Parrot selves beyond the Mathil from
where army people had watched the enemy. So the temple
served as fort too.
The Nandhi is a huge made of granite stone which is said
to be the biggest one in Tirunelveli District. There is a
Mandapam in northern part of the temple in which it is wonder
that a chain with ball made of granite stone is found.
Maha mandapam, Somavara Mandapam and Arudra Mandapam are
the examples for the architectural value.
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10. Thiruvaliswaram Temple
Thiruvaliswaram is in Tirunelveli District on the bank
of the river Gadana. Temple building received great impetus
from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja 1 and his son
Rajendra. In the early years of Rajaraja, many temples
larger than the specimens so far described, sprang up in
different parts of his growing empire. One of the most
remarkable-unique for the wealth and detail of its sculpture-
was the Thiruvaliswaram temple at Bramadesam in Tirunelveli
district. Its Garpagrakam is square: the Yall frieze on the
plinth consists of the full figures of the animal, not of the
bust alone as elsewhere. The Gana frieze below the co.rnics
is very well composed and shows figures in different dance
poses or otherwise engaged in merriment; some have comic
features, like lion-or monkey-faces and pot bellies, and the
whole scene of dancing, mockery and music is very humorously
portrayed. The entire cornice is elaborately embellished by
designs of foliage and creepers in the spaces between the
Kudus which are themselves highly ornate arches surmounted by
simhamukhas (lion faces). The first storey of the Vimana
carries a number of fine sculptures of the greatest interest
for the iconography of the period. On the southern side
there is the figure of Nataraja in the centre with
Vrishadharuda and Gangadhara on the proper left and
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Virabhadra and Devi on the proper right. On the Western
side, the centre is taken by Lingodbhava flanked by Vishnu
and Brahma. To the proper left are Kalarimurthi and
Kiratamurti and on the other side Yogadakshinamurti and
Umasahita. Gajari occupies the centre on the northern side
with Chandesanugraha and Sukhasanamurti on the proper right
and Somaskanda and an unidentified figure on the left. The
eastern side is hidden by thick brick terrace over the
Ardhamandapa put up in modern times. The second storey of the
Vimana reproduces on a reduced scale the ornamental features
of the exterior of the Garpagrakam including the friezes of
Ganas and Yalis and the Cernice. On the top of the second
storey are placed four manificent recumbent bulls, very
lifelike, one at each corner and facing outwards. In the
centre rises an octagonal plinth with the Griva and the
domical eight-ribbed Sikhara above. The Griva has niches at
the cardinal points bearing figures of a Vyakhaya-
dakshinamurti on the South, Yoganarasimaha on the West,
Brahma on the North, and Indra on the East. Over the highly
ornate Sikhara are the Mahapadma and Pattika with StupJL
above. The Ardhamandapa in front of the temple is coeval
with it, but the Mahamandam was a later addition, perhaps of
the reign of Rajendra I. While the shrine of Goddess is
later still, probably dating from thirteenth century. The
all
Uttara Kailasa shrine at Tiruvadi (Tanjore District), the
Vaidhyanatha temple at Tirumalavadi (Trichinopoly district),
the twin temple to Siva and Vishnu at Dadapuram (South Arcot
district) and Sivadevale Polonnaruva (Ceylon) are some of the
more notable among the many small temples of Rajaraja's
reign, though none of them approaches Tiruvaleeswaram from
the stand point of sculpture.
11. Thiruppudaimarudur Temple
The temple at Tiruppudaimarudur, is in Ambasamudram
taluk. No history of Indian art has mentioned it. It
contains one of the largest collections of painting in the
whole of India.
The neglect of the art treasures of this temple is a
reproach to scholarship. It is over a century since
monuments in India began to be surveyed. Yet
Tiruppudaimarudur, which deserves an honoured place in the
history of painting in Tamilnadu, seems to be little known
outside its immediate region. It has not attracted the
attention of those who write art histories.
Sculpture, particularly when it takes curious or popular
forms, attracts general attention Architecture by its very
massiveness imposes itself on the consciousness of 'the
57
people. But painting is generally disregarded. It is as if
it is considered beneath notice. Perhaps this is due to over
familiarity. Most houses contain some pictures, but very few
have any sculpture. Most people apparently find it difficult
to attach any value to the pictures they find on temple
wells. But they are impressed by sculpture.
The paintings in the second tier are of varied interest.
There are large paintings of Narasimha, Nataraj and Ganesa.
Chinese figures appear in some places. But the most
interesting painting is that of a ship carrying horses. An
Arab seems to be in command. On the top, there is a lookout
post. Another scene portrays what seems to be an army march
past.
The third tier contains, scenes from Thiruvilayadal
Puranam. There is Gundodhara with all his gigantic appetite,
despatching cart-loads of food. The marriage of Goddess
Meenakshi is depicted. There are a few scenes from the
'Sthala purana' of the Thirupudaimarudur temple. The ten
depictions of the 'Dasavatara' are interesting. The episode
of Sundarar and Cheraman, the saints also appears here. Many
of the panels carry descriptive labels.
These appear in the fourth tier too. The scene depicted
here include Karur Devar's visit to the temple, and the
marriage of Valli, Venugopala, Garuda and Manmatha also
appear. There are a number of floral designs.
The fifth ad final tier, contains the fewest paintings.
It is also the most damaged, by whitewashing here. There are
depictions of Kali and Ardhanariswara. Some floral designs
appear.
The paleography of the labels helps in dating the
paintings. Also useful are some of the subjects. The
appearances of the Chinese and the Arabs is intriguing. Over
the centuries, the Kings of south India used to import
horses. It was to take charge of some of them that
Manikkavasaga set out for the coast from Madurai to meet
with the incident that transformed him. The Vijayanagar
Rayas used to import horses on a large scale. In the
sixteenth century the South Pandya land was a part of the
empire. It is quite possible that during Manikkavasaga's
days, horses were unloaded in the Pandyan ports. The imports
impressed the artists so much that they depicted a foreign
ship so notably in this temple.
12. Madurai Sri Meenakshi Temple
Madural is situated on the bank of the river Vaigai. It
is one of the oldest cities in South India. All through the
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centuries, it has withstood many calamities. The muslim
invaders could not destroy the famous Sri Meenakshi Temple
and the other monuments of Madural.
From time immemorial, the city has been the seat of
learning and culture. Dravidian culture flourished in this
city for more than two thousand years.
The greatest temple of Madurai is Sri Meenakshi
Sundareswarar temple. The temple is rectangular in shape. It
was Thirumalai Nayakkar (1621-56 AD) who built the most
beautiful and artistic part of the temple. The temple is a
turn temple like that of Sri Nellaiappar temple at
Tirunelveli. There is one temple on the south dedicated to
Sri Meenakshi Ambal and the other is the consort of Lord
Sundareswarar. It is believed that God under the form of
Sundareswarar, married the daughter of Pandyan King
Malayadhuvasan. The temple is adorned with four big towers
in four directions.
The temple has much artistic sculptures to reveal the
historical events. The thousand pillared mandapam is a fine
artistic work to catch the stranger's eye. A single stoned
sculpture, like Veerabadra, Bathrakali and Kala Bairavar are
worthwhile to observe the architectural value of the temple.
Pandya kings had built the principal mandapam and kalyana
mandapam.
The Structure of Sri Meenakshi Amman Temple
The sanctum or Karuvarai, in the early period, had four
entrances which were guarded by two elephants in each
entrance. We can see the elephants in eastern entrance.
In the7th
In this century, sanctum of Swamy Sundareswarar was
built with the mandapam for Natarajar. Around them, there is
a compound wall/Mathilsuvar Kabali Mathil. It is clear that
in the 7th century, Swamy Sannathi with a single
pragaram/corridor had been built. These information is
pointed out by Sambandar in his - Devaram.
In the 12th Century
The great Tamil work, Thiru Aalavaiyudaiar Thippari
Malai furnishes the information that Kulasekara Pandian
built the Arthamandapam in Swamy temple, Mani Mandapam,
Mahamandapam, Arukall Beedam, Gopuram and its circular
Mathilsuvar. In addition to these constructions, the Pandian
king built Sulabathi Nayak temple, Malaimakal temple niches
for sun, sandeswarar and so on.
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A separate temple for Sri Meenakshi Amman was built by
Sadaivarman Kulasekara Pandian (1168-1175 AD). It is read in
the edict found in the first corridor of the temple.
Maravarman Sundara Pandya I (1216-1238 AD) built the
majestic temple tower/gopuram with nine stored tower.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (1251-1268) completed the
construction of the tower.
Maravarman Sundara Pandia II (1238-1251) built Sundara
Pandia Mandapam in the Meenakshi Temple, and second corridor
in the Meenakshi Temple, In the swamy temple, he built
Seendra Maran Mathil, Athira Veesi Aduvarar Mandapam,
Thiruvambalam in the first prakaram and seven storeyed
Chithrai Gopuram, He completely renovated the temple in his
period.
in the 14th Century
The western tower of the Swamy temple with nine storeys
was built by Parakkirama Pandian in 1323 A.D. He extended
the temple.
In the 15th Century
Mavali Vanathirayar, the Nayak King crowned by Lakkara
Nayakker, built the sanctum, mahamandapam, aarukal mandapa
vasal, front mandapam for Lord Nataraja, Amman sanctum, maha
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mandapam, palliyarai, and the prakaraswvar in the first
corridor. He also expanded the temple.
In the 16th Century
Chinnappa Nayar, the representative of Vijaya Nagar
Empire, (1524-1527 AD) built Nayak Mandapam and the temple
for Sani (Saturn). He strengthened the Chittarai tower. He
made a way between the Amman temple and the Swamy temple.
The five storeys eastern tower of Swamy Sannathi was built by
Vasuvappa Nayakkar and the western tower with five nilais was
built by Mallappa Nayak (1529-1542 AD).
In 1570 AD, the representatives of the Vijaya Nagar
Empire, Thumbikki Nayakkar and Thimmappa Nayakar built
additional Mandapams. In 1578 Thumbi Nayakker
(Virathumbikki Nayak) built Niruthi Moolai Mandapam at
Adiveedhi.
Thimma Nayak (1558-1560 AD) built Gnapurushamiruka
£4andapam, Sankile Mandapam and Kandarakandan Kuradu. He
formed the garden (Nanthavanam) also.
13, Anaimalai Cave Temple
Anaimalai is near Madurai city. This hill is similar to
that of an elephant stretching its fore hand. The cave
temple cteciicated to Lord Narasimha was built by Marankari,
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the Minister of the Pandya King Kolochia Nedusadaian
Prandagan ( 765-790 AD) and the work was completed by his
brother Maran Aeyini. It was built from 765 AD to 770 AD.
The temple is built on the shape of the Anaimalai hill.
The entrance has two big pillars and two semi pillars as
found in Malaiadikurichi. Pothigai is engraved in an
ordinary design. Meet to it, is Andaralam which is annexed
with Karuvarai. In the karuvarai, the idol Narasimhas, in
the pose of toring the body of the Aswa Eranian is installed.
Near the rock temple, there built an Artha Mandapam and
Mahamandapam. In the opposite of the Central shrine, is the
temple for Karudalwar. A separate temple is built for Thayar
Sannathi.
In the western slope of the Anaimalai hill, another cave
temple was cut up. It is dedicated to Lord Arumugaperuman
with his consort Devi Valli and Deivanayaki.
14. Thirupparankundram Temple
Thirupparankundram is near Madurai and its temple is
dedicated to Lord Muruga. It is a cave temple. The
Karuvarai is a cave. The deity is carved on the shape of the
rock. The karuvarai has these niches the niche faced to the
East is for Sivalinga, to the west is Thirumal and to the
north having another three niches from the Lord Muruga, Durga
and Vinayagar are engraved. In the north wall of the east
niche for Siva, the sculpture for Natarajar and in the west
nich for Vishnu, the idol for Narasimhar Adhivarahar are
engraved. This cave temple was built by Medusadaiyan
Proudagan, the Pandya King in 778 A.D. His chief commander
maka saamnuthan sathan Ganapathi carried out this work. His
wife Nakkan Kontri established the sankathis to Durga devi
and Jastadevi.
This temple is the best artistic work of Pandya kings
with highly structured sculptures similar to the cave temple
of Eloora in Maharastra State. There is a separate niches
for Gajalakshmi and Bhuvaneswari. The Pillars of the cave
temple have two square shapes as the portion and Tharanga
Pothigai, and like that of Mahendra Pallava style.
In the south of this cave temple, there is another cave
temple in a demolished condition, named as 'Vnaiyandan cave
temple'. It belongs to the 8th century. In the east faced
Karuvarai, Arthanareeswar idol is carved and in the south
well of the cave temple is engraved Nataraja Peruman. The
front Mandapam was built by Thirumalal Nayakar.
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15. Pillaiyarpatti Temple
It is a cave temple. It belongs to the 7th century
architecture of Pandya king. It is the oldest rock cut
temple built by Pandyas. The temple is dedicated to Lord
Karbagavinayakar. It is similar to the Mahendran style of
architecture. The other deities in the temple are
Lingothbavas, Ariyaran, Ambal and Subramanian. The
lingothbavar is engraved as that of Kundrakudi idol. the
sculpture is rested on the prismed pillar as in Kundrakudi.
It is near Karaikudi in Pasumpon District. By this temple,
one can understand the reign of Pandya king who ruled over
the Pandya kingdom.
16. Kundrakudi Temple
It is also a rock cut temple built during the period of
8th century by Pandya kings. There are two cave temples at
the foot oL the hill. One cave temple is having the idol of
Lingothbavar, Ariyaran, Natarajar, Naanmugan, Thirumal
Korravai Murugan and Vinayagar. At the sculpture of
Korravai, one devotee had offered his head for her, is
engraved. This is a wonderful piece of work.
Another cave temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu,
engraving Dwarabalaga statues at the entrance, with
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Karudalwar. Thirumal has posed with four hands with the
surrender pose of Karudan. Top of the hill is a temple for
Shunmuganathan. It is a cave temple of Pandyas.
17. Rameswaram Temple
The temple of Sri Ramanathaswamy at Rameswaram is said
to have been constructed at the instance of ceylon. It took
350 years to construct this temple. This temple dates back
to the 17th century. The tower is 100 feet high and the gate
way is in a big quardangle. This quardangle is 1000 feet
long and 650 feet broad.
An impressive pillared corridor surrounds the
quardangle. Its total length is 4000 feet. It is very rare
to find such a beautiful and grand corridor anywhere in the
world. There are hundreds of pillars on either side of the
corridor. Each pillar is a fine piece of stone carvings.
The structure with its superb art creates awe in the minds of
the observes.
18. Srirangam Temple
The temple is dedicated to vishnu deity Sriranganathan
and his consort Sridevi and Bhodevi. Srirangam is an island
surrounded by the River Kaveri and Kollidam. The temple of
Sri Rangan is like that of a fort. There is a strong outer
wall or Matrilisuvar enclosing the temple. There are also six
other fortified walls round the temple. The temple was
extended by Cholas, Pandyas and Nayaks.
The outer Mathilsuvar, the seventh one, is 3072 feet
long and 2521 feet breadth. The central shrine is Lord
Sriranganathar, who is lying as the bed of serpend, graces
the devotees. The main entrance is faced to south, on which
a multistroyed tower has been built which is said to be the
highest tower in Asia.
In the fourth circular suvar, there built a thousand
pillared Maridapam which is famous for Aranketrum of Kambar's
Ramayana.
Seshagiriraya Mandapam is near and opposite of the
thousand pillared mandapam. It is an artistic valued
mandapam. The sculptures encarved in this mandapam are in
Dravidian style of architecture. In the pillars of the
seshagiriraya mandapam, the sculptures of foot and leg,
raised houses, elephants, yalis, lions and Tigers are
encarved.
In eastern side, there is a tower having flight of steps
which helps to climb up the top of the tower from which, one
could see the scenaries of the town.
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In the southern side (main entrance), latest
multistroyed tower has - been built by the great saint Jeers.
The tower is called as white tower. A historical event is
behind the tower.
The Kalje commander Malikkabur tried to hold a robbery
of the wealth and ornamentals of Sriranganathan. His captain
Ital-khan was entrusted this work. When Italkhan tried to
enter the temple, he loved a beautiful lady Aranganatha
Manickam and decided to marry her. An agreement was made by
her that Ital khan should go to the top of the tower with her
to see the beautiful natural scenaries of the town. He
agreed her decision and viewed the scenes of Srirangam. At
that time, AranganathamaniCam pushed her husband Italkhan
down and he met a fatal accident and dead. By this great
sacrifice, Manickam prevented the robbery by Italkhan.
Vijaya Chokkannatha Nayak presented many valuable jewels
to Srirangam temple. In 1895 AD, Wales of England presented
the golden plate to the temple which is kept safely as the
moment of the England Royal family.
The history of the temple can be known from
Sthalapuranam, kovilolugu, Meccancy's work and EpigraphieS
during the period from 906 AD to 946 A.D. The temple was
administered by cholan pradhagan, the pandya kings, hoysalaS
and Vijayanagar kings.
19. Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram Temple
Rock temple built by Nãiasingavarman is called the
Rathas of Panchapandavar. In Mamallapuram, there are nine
Rock temples built by Narasimhavarman. Rock temples are
classified into Madakovil and ordinary temple. Ratha of
Arjunan, Ratha of Dharmar and Ratha of Sakadevan are
madakovil and others are ordinary kovils. Ratha of Arjuna has
two storeys, the ratha of Dharmaraja has three storeys and
the ratha of sakadevan has three storeys. The rathas of
Arjuna and Dharmaraja are in Dravidian style and the Ratha of
sakadevan is vesara style.
Drowbathai Ratha
It has two platforms. The basement platform is carried
by the sculptures of lions and elephants. In the upper
platform, there is a temple for Durga facing towards west.
There is a Karuvarai with sculptures encarved on the rock of
the karuvarai.
Arjuna Ratha
It is facing towards south having two stored madakoil.
A square typed basement is carried by lions and elephants.
Beema Ratha
It is a long square big temple made in single rock. Its
structure resembles the temple of Lord Nataraja at
Chidambaram.
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Dharmaraja Ratha
It is a three stored temple. The plinth area is 29
square feet. Its height is 39 feet facing towards west.
Sakadeva Ratha
It is otherwise called lanai temple or Alankovil. Its
structure resembles the back side of an elephant. It is
facing towards south with the stored building/temple. In
proud of the temple, there is Artha mandapam. Behind the
arthamandapam, there is Karuvarai. In front view of the
karuvarai at both side, the head of the elephant is encarved.
Ganesa Ratha
It is otherwise named as Tl Athyandha kama palleswaram",,
dedicated to Lord Siva. Athyandha kama was the nick name for
Parameswara Pallava I. Mamalla Narasinga Pallava began to
build it and Parameswara Pallava finished its construction.
The temple is facing towards west with a long Artha mandapa
in front of it. Arthamandapam has four pillars of which two
are lion pillars. In the middle of the Arthamandapam, there
is a karuvarai. Manjam, Kadam, Kosttam, Pancharam and
Karnakoodu are set up on the karuvarai which are the salient
features of pallavas art of constructions. At the top of the
karuvarai, salakara vimanam was built in vesaram type of
construction.
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Pidari Ratha
It is situated near the valayan kuttal on the two rocks
facing towards north. It is a three stored small temple. At
Mamallapuram, Dravidian style of rock temples are constructed
as described in the books of sculpture. A round shape vimana
temple named Srivijayan is not found here. If it is built,
all types of dravidian style of temple construction could be
seen in one place that is here.
Valayankuttai Ratha
It is found near the canal of Bucckingham. It is not in
full shape. Manjamkaluthu and Viman are found well shaped.
20. Kooram Temple
It is the first granite built temple by Parameswaran
Pallavan, the son of Narasimha Pallavan. The place, in which
temple is built, is called as Parameswara Mangalam after his
name.
Rajasimha Pallavan constructed temples with granite. He
built Kailasanathar temple at Kanchipuram and Seashore temple
at Mamallapuram.
Inscription of Rajaraja Chola says, there are three
temples on the seashore of Mamallapuram and they are
Chattiria Sikamani Palleswaram, Rajasimha Palleswaram and
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Pallikondarulia Devar Kovil. The first two temples were
drowned into the sea.
It must be said that no other temple could stand
comparison with the cave temples at the seven pagodas in
neatness of execution and in boldness of design.
The detailed workmanship displayed in the pallava
sculptures are conspicuous by their absence in most of the
images found in the caves of Chera and Pandya countries.
Hundreds of Jaina figures are found out on the sides of big
boulders but there are poor limitations of pallava art.
The Vayalur pillar epigraph and the Tirupporur
inscriptions clearly suggest that temples at Vayalur and
Tirupporur belonged to some pallava structural monuments.
21. Canjeevaram Sri Kailasanathar Temple
Canjeevaram, considered to be one of the seven sacred
cities in India, was successively the capital city of the
pallavas, the cholas and the Rajas of Vijaya Nagar. During
the 7th century and the 8th century some of the best temples
in the city were built by the pallavas. In Srikailasanathar
temple, the beautiful idol of ArthanareeSwar depicts Siva, in
the famine and masculine forms combined into. In the female
part, one can see a veera, the stringed musical instrument,
and the male part is stated on a bull.
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22. Chidambaram Temple
Chidambaram is famous for its temple of Siva. It is
one of the largest, most ancient and most sacred of the
temples in South India. This temple covers an area of not
less than 39 acres. It is built almost entirely with
granite. The main buildings are enclosed with two high walls
faced with dressed granite. Through both walls can be seen
four main entrances facing the four points of the campass.
The upper parts of entrances in the inner wall of four great
gopurams (towers). are embellished (beautified) with numerous
sculptures representing religious sciences.
The gopuram over the northern entrance bears an
inscription which shows that it was built by Krishnadevaraya,
the greatest of the Vijayanagar Kings (1509-1530 A.D.)
The eastern gopuram bears an inscription of Sundara
Pandya Deva of Madurai who ascended the throne in 1251 AD.
The western gopuram was built by Kopperunjinga, the
Pallava King whose capital was at Sendamangalam in South
Arcot District.
The southern gopuram is supposed to have been built by
one of the chola kings.
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The height of these gopurams is above 150 feet and the
lights which are lit on them on holy days are well known land
marks for mariners.
The lower portions of the gopuram which are built
entirely of stone are decorated with little panels containing
dancing figures. Within the inner wall is a great space
mostly paved with stone slaps.
Entering by the southern gate, one sees first a big
Nandi (Sacred bull). To the west of this is a shrine to
Ganapathi. To the east is the great Sivaganga tank riveted
on all sides with stone and surrounded by a pillared
cloister.
Beyond the Sivaganga tank is the thousand pillared
mantapam. The thousand pillared mantapam is 340 feet long
and 150 feet wide. It is one of the five sabhas of the
temples. It is called the Raja Sabha or hall of State.
The hail was almost certainly erected between 1595 and
1685 AD.
Devasabha, Chit Sabha, Kanaka Sabha and Nritta Sabha are
the remaining four Sabhas and are located in the inner
enclosure of the temple which is the most sacred and
important part of the whole temple.
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The lingam of the temple is supposed to be the Akasa
1 in g am.
It is known that the chidambara Rakasyam or secret of
chidambaram is situated behind the idol and a long string of
golden vilva leaves are suspended in front of it.
The Kanaka Sabha is also of wood and is roofed with
plates of copper.
The Nritta sabha or hail of dance is considered to be
the most beautiful and interesting part of the temple. It
consists of a mandapam, adorned with wheels and prancing
horses on either to represent a temple car. It is supported
by 56 pillars about eight feet high and most delicately
carved from top to bottom resting on a stylobate ornamented
with dancing figures.
The walls of the two innermost squares of the temple are
of chola origin, for, in a number of inscriptions relating to
the chola period, the walls are found designated Vikramachola
Thirumalicjai and Kulothunga chola Thirumaiigai. There are
numerous carvings on the walls relating to gifts of land,
jewels, money etc. to the temple but none of them shows when
the temple was founded. There is some evidence in the
eastern inscription to show that the MulasthaneSWara shrin
close to Deva Sabha is the oldest building.
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One of the inscriptions shows that Vikrama chola built
portions of the temple in 1128 AD. He is also said to have
covered with fine gold the enclosure, the gopurams, the halls
and the buildings surrounding kanaka sabha.
The thousand pillared mandapam is stated to have been
built by a king named Naralokavira who is identified as
Parakrama Pandya of the 13th century AD.
The Vijayanagar kings made some additions. After them,
towards the close of the last century, Nattukottai Chettaiars
took up the work of renovation on a large scale with the aid
of the special fund formed by the members of their community.
23. Thanjavur Temple
The Brihadiswara temple is a monument dedicated to Lord
Siva. It is a fitting symbol of the magnificient achievement
of Rajaraja (985-1012 A.D.). He was a devout Saiva. The great
chola king undertook the construction of this big temple or
the Brihadiswara temple, one of the most admirable monuments
of Tamilnadu.
The temple is constructed of granite mostly of large
blocks of a rack. The plinth of the central shrine is 45.75
square metre. The Vimanam is 60.96 metre high. On the
massive plinth, there are niches on three sides in two rows,
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containing the representations of deities such as Siva,
Vishnu and Durga.
On the southern wall, the lower niches contain Ganesa,
Vishnu with Sri Devi and Ehu Devi, Lakshmi, a pair of dwara-
balas, Vishnu vanugraha - murti, Bhikshantar, Veerabadra, a
pair of dwara-balas, and two chandrasekaras one with and the
other without halo.
In the lower niches, one can see Dakshinamurti,
Kalakanta and Natesa. On the North, in the lower series are
Ardhanariswara, Gangadhara and a pair of dwarabalas. Here
one can see the sculptures of Alinga chandrasekara, Siva
holding Sula, Saraswathi Mahishasuramardini and Bairava.
The top niches show a number of Tripurantagas. In the
small circular space of this top nich are carvings of the
deities like Ganesa, Vrishavavakana, Bhikshantar and
Narasimhar.
Entering the temple from the east, there is a flight of
steps lading to the pillared mandapam. Apart from the
mandapam and the steps leading to it, there are two other
flights of steps on the northern and southern sides of the
mandapam. The nandis on the vimanam are found seated
sideways but their heads turned to the front.
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The stone constituting the huge sikara is said to weigh
81.284 tonnes. It is popularly believed to have been raised
to its present height by being dragged on an inclined plane,
which had its base at a place known as Sarapallam, 6.44 km
away.
The vast inner court yard of the temple is 152.40 m long
and 76.20 m wide. It is surrounded by a cloister. At the
entrance, one can see two gopurams, one is larger and the
second is better decorated.
The second gopuram has two monolithic dwarabalas and the
carvings of the marriage of Lord Siva and Parvathi, the
scene of Siva protecting markarideya, and Arjuna winning the
pasupata weapon.
A huge monolithic Nandhi in the canopy of a mandapam
facing the central shrine, indeed is a fitting vehicle for
colossal linga installed in the central shrine. The height
of the Nandhi is more than 3.66 M. The lingam in the central
is known after Rajaraja, as Rajarajeswaramudayar.
The dark passage in the sanctum contains important
specimens of sculptural art. There are three colossal
sculptures representing Siva as holding a spear, seated Siva
carrying a sword and siva with ten arms dancing in the
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chatura pose as Vishnu plays the drum and Devi sits in
padmasanam with a lotus kind and rosary in her hands.
The entire wall space and ceiling of the passages were
covered with paintings. It was obscured by a coat of
painting executed during the Nayak period in 17th century. A
Notable worthy scenes of paintings are Siva as Dakshinamurti,
seated on a tiger skin in Yogic pose and the story scene of
how siva come down in the form of old man with a document in
his hands to establish his right to carry away sundarar on
his marriage day to his abode at Thiruvennainallur. There is
a painting of a lively scene of woman cooking and food being
served during the marriage festivity.
There is a large figure of Nataraja dancing in the
golden nail at Chidambaram with priests and other devotees.
On the opposite wall, there are some charming miniature
figures of graceful women. A little further up is Rajaraja
with his Guru Karuvur Devar.
The entire northern side is painted by a gigantic figure
of Tripurantaka Siva on a chariot driven by Brahma. Th
greatest master piece of painting of Rajaraja Chola is the
pose of a warrior with eight arms, all carrying weapons and
in the act of using a mighty bow to overcome a host of
aggressive and fearless demons with their women fold clinging
to them.
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The achievement of the art in the chola period is
revealed in the fine series of the one hundred and eight
dance poses carved all around the inner walls of the first
floor of the temple. They are considered as an invaluable
document in the history of Indian art.
24. Daaraasuram Temple
The chola's architectural contribution is the temple of
Darasuram.
There is a large gopuram, the upper portion of which is
ruined. There is also a second gopuram. In continuation of
the second gopuram is the larger prakakara wall around the
temple. The wall is decorated with couchant bills at
intervals.
The gopuram is supported by pillars in a row which have
some fine encarvings.
Beyond the second gopuram is a large balipitha with
beautiful lotus - petal decoratings. There is a large Nandhi
like that in Tanjore.
On the sides at the entrance are small balustrades with
beautiful makara decoration.
The mahara with a floriated tail, short legs, and cured
up snout and a pair of dwarfgana riders on it forms a lonely
decoration.
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Beyond it is a beautiful mandapa with a number of
pillars with flights of steps on the east and west. The
balustrades for these steps are nicely decorated with a long
curling thick issuing out of a lion head.
A similar second one runs parallel to the trunk of an
elephant, lost in the open jaws of Mahara whose floriated
tail is called up, to balance the complete design.
The elephant is beautifully decorated. It has on its
back dwarf ganas, the Sankha Nidhi and Padma Nidhi.
The eight outer pillars of the mandapam are supported by
Squatting Yalis. The trunks of the yalis curled up and with
pronounced apace.
The lotus-petal decoration below has prominent petal-
tips.
As in the other pillars in the mandapam, the capital has
the beginning of the bodhika decoration which develops into
the lotus decoration.
Each of the four inner pillars is divided into sectors,
three oblong and two polygonal.
The rectangular portions of the pillars are decorated
with small panels illustrating mythological stories such as
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(1) the attack of manmatha (2) the penance of Parvathi (3)
the prayer of the Gods for a son of Siva (4) the birth of
Kumara (5) Siva's marriage (6) Siva t s fight with Asuras.
There is an inscription which describes as Swasti Sri
Rajagambiram Thiru Mandapam, as four pillars.
On either side of the mandapam, there are lonely
galloping horses, with a huge wheel carved behind it, which
gives the mandapam the semblance of a chariot.
The front of the base of this mandapam extension is
decorated at the bottom with panels showing (1) Siva fighting
the Tripuras from the chariot. 2) Kalantaka repelling Yama
for protecting the son of Mrikandu whom Siva had blessed with
a long life. 3) Siva burning kama who dared attack him with
his flowery bow and arrow even while his lovely queens
including Rati and other gods pray for his being spared.
4) the destruction of Daksha's sacrifice by Virabadra.
In the riches, there are Agni, Indra, Brahma, Vishnu and
Vayu, all standing with hands in the attitude of reverence of
Siva.
The main mandapam is decorated with a pair of yakshas
guarding Padma and Sankha Nidhis in riches on either side of
the mandapam.
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SECTION III: FORTS - A THEORETICAL OVER-VIEW
WHAT DOES FORT MEAN?
Generally speaking that a fort may be described as a
well fortified and protected area in which the ancient kings
used to live with their officials and people. Fort is
otherwise called as 'Durg' which means a hard and difficult
place where no enemy could enter into it.
The structure of any fort is either in the shape of
square or triangle or arthachandran or circle.
The entrance of the fort was so high that the kings
could enter into it by sitting on the back of elephant
holding country flag on his hands. Round the Fort strong
granite stone wall was constructed so that enemy could not
seize it easily.
Inside the Fort four ways road were maintained which
were used to go to the main-entrance, the palace, the temple
and the office of the Dharma-Athikarikal.
Inside the fort, quarters for officials, army men and
needful people were built. Hospitals both for human being
and animals were constructed inside the fort.
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Government treasury was built in the south side of the
fort. Weapon store house was placed in the Agnikonam
adjuourned with kitchen and industry centres
Ancient kings built forts with a view to protected his
kingdom and his people. Fort is a building for military
defence. The ancient forts were benefitted to protect the
kingdom and their subjects from their enemies and their
attacks.
From the two great epics, Ramayana and Mahabaratha it is
known that the forts had been built in the capital of the
country. They had been erected in well protected areas.
Round the fort, there built a big and broad compound wall
made of black granite stones. The natural strength of the
rock wall was still further increased by the construction of
the embrasured walls and gateways, along all possible shelves
and percipitous edges equipped with loop holes for the use of
guns and musketry. They were connected with one another by a
Ramport. These well protected area is called as fort.
TYPES OF FORTS
There were four types of forts and they are 1) Forts
built on the plains called as Stala Durg 2) Forts constructed
in the middle of the thick forest-called as Vana Durg. 3)
Forts built on the top of the hills - Giri Durg (Senji Fort)
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and 4) Forts constructed on the surface of the water - Jala
Drug. In kanthapuram, kachiappa munivar describes the fort of
veera mahendrapuram built by sevan, on the surface of the
water.
STRUCTURE OF A FORT
The general structure of a Fort in Tamilnadu is:
1) Enclosed forest 2) Ditch 3) Fortified wall 4) Outer
wall 5) Innerwall 6) Rampart 7) Palaces 8) Temple 9) Tank 10)
Treasury 11) Staff quarters and 12) Army quarters.
Enclosed Forest
Outscrits of the forts are covered with thick forest
having planted thorny trees through which none could enter
into it. Thorny trees like Karuvelam, Babul, Bamboo and
Elanthai plants were planted around the forts for protection
purpose.
Ditch
Round the fort's compound wall, every fort had the ditch
which is about 80 feet depth, 100 to 300 feet breadth. The
ditch was filled with fresh water channeling from the inside
forts. Poisonous animals like Edangar, Kara and crocodile
lived in the ditch. To enter into the fort from the main
land there was a wooden bridge.
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Fortified Wall
Round the fort there built a compound wall with huge and
broad granite stones. These huge boulders are largely
unclaimbable and well fortified on every side by the
battlemented stone walls equipped with loopholes for use of
guns and musketry.
Outer Wall
The outer wall of the fort was built beside the
fortified wall. In them, armymen could stay and guard the
fort. They could not be seen by their enemies because of the
construction of the outerwall. Outside of the outerwall is
perpendicular and the inner side slope.
Inner Wall
There is a gap between the outerwall and the inner wall,
which was filled with straw of paddy and Raki. Also between
the inner and outer walls, copper plate was fitted and built
with mud. It was built strongly by using the mixture of Raki
plump and palmyra juice.
Mathil Suvar
Mathil suvar was an important place in the construction
of the Forts. It was a well fortified wall to defend the
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enemy. The mathilsuvar was too high to climb. It could not
be demolished easily. Metal plates were used to construct
it. Copper plates were used in Sangam age.
The basement of the Mathilsuvar was built with granite
stone. There were two layers, outer wall and inner wall.
Between the two walls, there was a gap in which straw, paddy
pod, rahi pod, umi were filled with them. There was a tunnel
under the mathil likewise there was Alankal, Kilikudu over
the mathil. Kilikudu was used to defend the enemy from the
top of the mathil from where one could see the enemy from
distant.
Some sorts of machines were erected in the Kilikudu to
defend the enemy.
During the sangam age, the mathil was constructed with
Palmyra juice mixed with mud.
The King's Flags was hoisted at the top of the fort and
their emblem was encarved at the entrance of the fort.
It is known from the sources of Purananuru: Cholan
Nalankilli demolished seven golden forts of the Pandya King
and engraved his tiger emblem on the entrance of these seven
forts.
Temple was built in each and every fort. For example in
Vellore Fort, Sri Jalakandeswarar Temple was built. In
Gingee Fort, Sri Ranganathar temple was built. In Tanjore
Fort, Sri Bhrahadeeswarar temple was built. In Rock Fort,
Trichy, Sri Thayumanavar Temple was constructed. In Namakkal
Fort, Sri Ranganathar Temple was built.
Rampart
This is made of larger size of granite and they are
connected with one another like a chain. It is nearly 15
feet high from the inner wall. To claimb the top of the
Rampart, many row of flights of steps were constructed. The
Horizontal surface of this was used to place war materials
and weapons.
Palace
It is generally seen that in Tamilnadu, palace was built
inside the forts. Most of the palaces are situated in the
protected forts. Construction of palace inside the fort is
one of the structures seen in the forts.
Temple
An other notable thing is that the forts are having big
temples. For example, Jalakandeswar Temple in Vellore fort
and RanganathaSami Temple in senji fort.
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Tank
In the middle of the fort, there was a tank with
protected water. The tank was useful to provide water for
the ditch located in the outside of the forts.
Treasury
Governments offices and Treasury were located in the
forts.
Staff Quarters
In side the forts, there was a colony for the government
personnel living. They could call for anytime for the
urgent government duty.
Army Quarters
Soldiers were living in the forts.
Ancient Tamil kings established their capital city in
the centre of their country. In the heart of the capital
city the palaces were constructed. Around the palaces, the
quarters of the officials serving in the palaces like
prohithars (preachers), ministers, doctors, veterinery
doctors, Musicians and other needy people were constructed.
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ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FORTS
The economic policy of the ancient fort was very
flexible. Different types of people lived and were engaged
in different types of occupation. Peasants were treated with
great respect. Next to them weavers enjoyed great influence
in the society. Division of labour was practised.
Inscriptions show that payment of revenue was frequently
made partly in kind and partly in cash, so much rice and so
much gold so that cash-nexus between the fort area and the
village had already come into existence in that region though
it was not yet universal.
The most probable view is that at the fort area,
transactions were increasing slowly through out the country.
Inscriptions establish the fact that the authorities
could on occasion exact compulsory labour from villages.
MerchaiThs travelled freely over the country but the
volume of their transactions and their methods of business
are matter for conjecture.
Barter system was adopted in the society and animals
were treated as the medium of business exchange.
SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FORTS
The Brahmins enjoyed high position in the society. They
became a distinct group in the community.
Arts like sculpture, architecture and music were treated
to be hereditary acquisitions.
It may be observed from the literary and Epigraphical
sources available that slavery system prevailed in the
country. The slaves were merely of agricultural labourers.
The peasants were the largest rural community. It is to
be understood that there were social stratifications from the
very early times.
In the fort, the royal princes and the important
officials lived a life luxurious and they ate and drank as
suited to their wealth and status. Non-vegetarian was quite
prevalent. The common people ate and drank as well as they
could. Vegetarianism was popularised by the brahmins.
The common people wore cotton cloth rarely supplemented
by silk. Tali was a sacred ornament which was not to be worn
by a widow.
The butcher, Dhobi, barber and sewage cleaner were to be
allowed to the outer side of the forts.
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EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF FORTS
Education was a developed faculty in Tamil country.
Through sangam, education was spread among the people who
lived in the forts. The Word 'SANGAM' itself stands for a
great academy engaged in the excellence of literary pursuits.
Under pallavas and pandyas (550 - 850 AD) education was
matured. A rich body of literature was produced which are
full of educational ideologies and principles.
Brahmins ran schools either in their own residences or
in centralised schools endowed by the royalty or aristocracy
of the land.
SELECTED FORTS IN TAMIL NADU
During the epic period, the kings built forts and lived
in the palaces which were in the middle of the forts.
The first historical information about the forts in
Tamilnadu is quoted from the epic Ramayana. Valmiki in his
great epic mentions about the kingdom of pandyas and their
forts and its city gates. He describes that the city gates
of the pandya kingdom had been richly embellished with gold,
pearls and jems.
In the sangam Tamil work Purananuru, it is said that
cholan Nalankilli demolished seven storeyed compound wall one
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by one which is considered as seven gold fort of pandyas and
encarved his Tiger emblem.
Chola king karikalan built his fort at Kaveripumpattinam
with the labour force of 12,000 singalees soldiers who were
brought to Chola country after conquering ceylon.
Avur Fort
Purananuru stanca 44 gives the information on the fort
of Avur.
There was a battle between Nalankilli and Nedunkilli to
size the fort of Avur. Nalankilli seized the fort and closed
the gate of it. Transport and communication, and every
things had been closed. Ladies and children in the fort had
suffered a lot by hunger. The poet kovurkilar made them
compromise to open the gate way of the fort. He says, if
Nalankilli is polus, open the fort or greedy proclaim the
war
The locality of the selected Forts is noted in Fig.3.
1. Circular Fort (Vattakottai)
The circular Fort is 6 kilo metre away from
Kanniyakumari. The Fort was built by Raja Varman, the king
of venadu. The extent of the Fort is nearly 5 acres. The
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circular Fort was designed by the Dutch captain Dillanoi. In
1740 AD, Dutch army under the captain Dillawari fought
against the king of Venadu Marthanda Rajavarman at Colochel
port. Dutch was defeated in the battle and the Dutch soldiers
were surrendered under the Venadu king. He wanted to build a
Fort towards the south east frontier of his country. The
slaved captain became his commander and prepared to design
and build the fort with the assistance of his thousands of
Dutch armymen on the seashore of Bay of Bengal.
It served as the Artillary Fort of Marthandan dynasty.
At the entrance of the Fort, there is the emblem of
Raja Marthanda Varman having the letters R.V. with name in
English as VATTAKOTTAI. Nearly 1000 armymen were guarding
the Fort.
Inside the Fort, to lodge the soldiers, there are four
mandapams made granite stone. The ceiling of these mandapams
have the emblem of fish which is the emblem of the Pandya
Kings. From this, one can assume that the relationship
between the Marthanda dynasty and Pandiya kings was
congenial. The other view says that the Venadu king
defeated the pandya king and destructed the stone
manufactures which were transported to circular Fort and used
to build this fort.
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In the centre of the Fort is a tank and a steep yard is
round the tank. The trace of the mandapam had been used as
the artillery parade ground.
The parade ground was in the open yard facing towards
north and south. The sunlight freely rises in the parade
ground. To step up the parade ground, there are flights of
step on either side of the ground. 13 steps were built with
strong 1 1/2 feet thick granite. Still they are in good
condition.
Round the fort, strong and high compound, and enclosed
walls had been constructed with stone, mortar and fired
bricks. Parrots and niches are built with selves to watch
the movement of the enemy. The enclosed walls have the
surface width 3 1/2 feet and the slopes are about 1 1/2 feet.
The fort is projected to the sea about 100 feet length.
From there, the soldiers could watch the naval force of their
enemies.
To place the commander at the top of the Fort, a
standing platform measuring 30 feet slope had been built on
both side of the parade ground.
There was a tunnel from here to Padmanabapuram palace.
But at present it is in ruined condition. The fort of
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Udayagiri and Padmariabapuram place were built in the same
period.
2. Rock Fort
Rock Fort is situated in the city of Thiruchirapalli.
It is in the heart of the city. It is the only hill fort in
the Chola Kingdom. It is situated in a single rock. The
fort is fortified well with big granite stones. The mathil
suvar has enclosed the fort, the temple and the tank. Round
the mathil suvar, there might have been some sort of trench.
But at present these are changed as streets after demolition
of trenches.
The western entrance is still there and called as main
guard gate. This fort has played an important role in the
carnatic wars. Inside the fort, there is a rock cut temple,
built by Pallava kings.
In 1559 A.D. the Chieftain of Madurai, Viswanatha Nayak
captured this rock fort and renovated the fort. Rani
Mangammal built a beautiful palace inside the fort. Trichy
was ruled as the capital city in the reign of Muthukrishnappa
Nayak, the eighth king in Nayak dynasty. Thirumalai Nayakkar
had transferred the capital city from Trichy to Madurai.
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From Thirumalai Nayakkar, Nawab of Arcot Chandra Sahib
captured this fort in 1736 AD. In 1751 AD Mohammed Au
seized the fort.
In 1766 Hyder Ali of Mysore invaded against this fort
but he did not attack the fort But in 1768-69, he came back
and demolished the Mathilsuvar. In 1990, Tippusultan
attacked Srirangam but he did not attack Trichy Rock Fort.
In addition to this Rock Fort, there are two other
temple forts, Srirangam Temple Fort and Thiruvanaikkal
Temple Fort.
Srirangan Fort is naturally situated in between the
river Kaveri and Kollidam which serve as the trench of the
Fort. This tort has seven different kinds of enclosed mathil
suvar which are made of granite stones. The outer
mathilsuvar is 3072 feet long and 2521 feet breadth. The
entrance of the fort is faced to south. After the entrance,
there are many streets and houses of different people.
In the fourth enclosed circular suvar, thousand pillared
mandapam was constructed. This mandapam has the credit that
Kambar published Kambaramayana here. In the fourth circular
suvar of eastern way, there is a tower having flight of steps
to go to the top of the tower.
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During the war, Mohammaddians, French people and British
people had occupied the Sri Rangan fort as their forts.
3. Thanjavur Forts
Thanjavur was successively the capital city of the
imperial cholas in the 9th century, the Nayak reign in 15th
century, and the Maratha's regime in the 18th century. It is
notable that Tanjore was the capital city more than thousand
years. Forts and palaces found in the city are considered as
the best historical monuments. Dravidian style of fort
building was constructed in this capital city.
Maadam, Maaligai, Koodam and Gopuram are the four types
found in Dravidian style of construction. These four forms
can be seen in the forts of Tanjore as well as the palaces.
Veerarahavan Fort and Rajarajeswaran fort otherwise
named as Temple Fort are the chief forts found at present.
Veerarahavan Fort is called as big fort. It's extent is
nearly 530 acres. The mathilsuvar of this fort is 151 feet
height and 15 feet breadth. The branches of the river Kaveri
are surrounded by the Veerarahavan Fort as the trench of the
Fort. Inside the fort were four streets and a numerable
buildings, which were not proportionately built. In the
eastern of the Fort, is a small hill on which canvas had been
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placed. There are two durbar mandapams. There is a big
library in Saraswathi Mahal.
Rajarajeswaram Fort was constructed by the Chola King
Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD). It is renamed as small fort and
Sivaganga Fort. The river kaveri is surrounded by the fort
as the trench. The mathil suvar is built with strong block
of granite stones. On the surface of the mathil suvar, a
number of bull idols (Nandhi) was placed.
The entrance of the fort is named as Kerelathari vaiel
and it has a big tower. The another entrance, tower is named
as Rajarajan Tiruvaiel. In side the fort, the chola king
built a big temple. This fort was constructed during 1003-
1006 A.D.
At present, the mathil suvar of the fort and trench are
in a demolished position.
Thanjavur Rajarajeswaram Fort
Rajaraja-I began the construction of this fort in 1003
AD and completed it in 1006 AD. It is otherwise called as
small fort or sivaganga fort. Around the Rajeswaram Fort,
there is a ditch, one can see it. At the another entrance of
the fort, there is a tower and the entrance is called as
Keralanthagan voil. Beyond this entrance, there is another
entrance which is called Rajarajan Thiruvoil.
Beyond the second entrance, there is a broad and lengthy
open space floored with granite stones and fired bricks. Its
length is 500 feet and the width 250 feet. There is a
platform on which is a big Nandi. The Nandi mandapam was
built by Naiks.
Veerarahavan Fort
It is otherwise called big fort. Its extent is 530
acres. The compound wall of the fort had the height of 150
feet and width 15 feet. The branches of the river Kaveri
served as the ditch of the fort. There were many big
buildings and four big streets inside the forts. The eastern
side of the fort is a small hill, with a height of 150 feet
on which 24 feet long cannon was placed. 8 storeyed building
was built inside the fort. There are two Durbar halls, big
library called as Saraswathi Maha, and Aritellery Koodam.
4. Gingee (Senji) Fort
Senji is famous chiefly for the historic fort. This
fort stands on three hills, steep, rocky, and concerned with
such enormous boulders. The boulders are almost unclaimable
and arranged in a form of triangle. Each of the three is
fortified on all sides with line above line of stone walls.
The stone walls are flanked with bastions, fitted with
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emprasures for guns, loop-holded for musketry and pierced
only by narrow and strong gateways and from each to the next
connected with these defences, runs a great stone-Laced
rampart nearly 60 feet thick with a ditch over 80 feet wide
outside it.
The triangular space enclosed forms the lower fort and
the three hills are the citadels. The lower fort is entered
by two gates, one on the north called Arcot gate, and the
other on the east known as Pondicherry gate.
Each of the three citadels leads from the lower fort a
steep flight of step of hewn granite built with much skill on
and among the great boulders with which the sides of the
hills are strewn.
The citadel on the north is called Krishnagiri, that on
the south Chandrayan Durg, and that on the west, the highest
is Rajagiri. To the south of Rajagiri is Chakkilian Durg, a
smaller portified hill.
In 1200 A.D. Senji was fortified by a shephered Ananda
kone. He found a treasure in one of the cavities of the
western hills while grazing his sheep.
With this earning from treasure, Anandakone became the
head of a small band of warriors. He built small porters
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on Kamalagiri or Anandayiri. His successor Krishnakone built
the fort of Krishnagiri. His successor Konnerikon cut out
the elaborate steps to the fortress of Krishnagiri and built
Sri Gopalasami Temple on its top.
Puliakon excavated tanks and built rest houses by the
side of the roads leading to Trichy, Tanjore and Vettavalam.
Thus Senji is considered as an important monument.
5. Namakkal Fort
In the centre of the Nammakkal city, there is a hill
called as Namakkal hill which is naturally a big, undivided
and hard single granite hill. Its height is 200 feet. The
eastern and western sides of the hill are very deep
vertically situated so that no one can enter into it. But
the northern and southern sides are slanding and hence steps
were encarved on the southern side of the hill. The extent
of the fort is 1 acre.
The steps are very narrow. There is a demolished wall
in the south. The demolished wall might have been the
remains of the old fort.
At the top of the hill, there is a temple for Thirumal.
Many epigraphies are found encarved on the side of the temple
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wall. The 30 feet squared building, made of bricks and
mortar, might have been the treasury built on the top of the
hill.
There is a secret way in the north of the fort. The
compound wall is made of stones which are connected as a
chain. It is noted like other forts there is no use of
mortar or cement. The western portion of compound wall built
on the fort is constructed with bricks and mortar. The
breadth of the wall is 3 feet on which there are small holes
through which Warriors used to shoot their enemies.
Round the rock hill, there is a tank namely Kamalalayam
which served as the ditch of the fort.
Mahendra Varman I encarved the rock cut temple in the
western side of the hill namely Sri Ranganathar Temple. Thus
Namakkal Fort is considered as a monument.
6. Tiger Fort
The fort is situated in Nilgiris district. There were
eight forts around the mountain Nilgiris. Pulikottai,
Malaikottai, Uthayarayan Kottai (Koriakkarai) are the
important forts. These were built by the kings who belonged
to the race of Vadugar.
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Pulikottai is built on the vertical hills. Naturally,
the deep valley served as the protected trench. Its forest
is considered as the protected forest. The fort is connected
with the main land by a narrow rock bridge in which one could
walk or cross the bridge. The vertical and naturally polished
rock served as the natural protection, through which the
enemy could not climb with thread ladder. Its height is 6000
feet.
Around the fort, there is a long and strong mathilsuvar
with kilikoodu to watch the enemies. The wall is 1500 feet
long and 600 feet breadth. Thippu Suithan reconstructed the
tiger fort and named as Syed Bad, Malaikottai as Ussainbad
and Utharayan fort as Umarbad. During his reign, these forts
were under the control of his commander Alikkan. Tippusultan
prisoned the British captain Herbad in the tiger forts.
7. Vellore Fort
Vellore fort is built in semi-circle shape made of
granite stone with well advanced engineering technology.
Round the fort is a ditch as protection in which thousands of
crocodiles were brought up and so one could not enter into
the tort through the ditch. Its height is 16 metres, length
is 760 metres and breadth is 455 metres. The outerwall is
made of granite stone, having guard loom and cannon room.
Inside the port, there built a mosque by Sanda Sahib, a
church built by Britisher and the temple Sri Jalakandeswarar
by Nayaks. So it is at present considered as a secular
monument.
This fort was built by Chinna Bommi Nayak, the general
of Vijayanagara empire in 1566 A.D. There are many secret
tunnels inside the fort. In 1806 Vellur mutney started here
which served as the first independence war.
SECTION IV: PALACES - A THEORETICAL OVER-VIEW
WHAT DOES PALACE MEAN?
Palace is the dwelling place of royal family and the
kings. It was considered as the house of the king and the
queen. The place has many large splendid rooms with
spaciously well ventilated. The outer look and appearance of
the palace is usually well designed and decorated.
The word 'Palace' , is derived from 'palatine hill' in
Rome on which Augustus the first Roman Emperor built his
home.
The most magnificient palaces belonged to those ancient
empires in which powers of kings were more exalted.
In the ancient times, the king's power was generally
unchecked. As he was regarded as the protector of the
subjects, his dwelling had to be magnificient and remote from
ordinary people.
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It is clear that the dwelling place of the king is the
palace, which is well constructed with multistoreyed
buildings.
STRUCTURE OF A PALACE
The palaces in Tamilnadu included the following
structural parts:
1) Entrance 2) Reception Hall 3) Conference Hall, 4)
Anthapuram 5) Manimandapam 6) Guest House 7) Treasury 8)
Dinning Hall 9) Balcony (Portico) 10) Well Fortified compound
wall 11) Armoury 12) Living Rooms 13) A huge temple 14)
Swimming Pool or tank 15) Granary.
Entrance
The entrance of the palace was built to be too high
enabling the entrance of the soldiers riding on the elephants
back, having raised the flags of victory.
Reception Hall
Beyond the entrance is a Reception Hall where the kings
used to call on the important persons as well as the
foreigners.
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Conference Hall
Conference Hall is a magnificent one having raised a
platform on which the king used to seat on his throne. On his
both side armed women served. Chief minister and ministers
were seated in front of the kings row by row. Beyond them,
soldiers used to guard. At the upper portion of the hail were
niches from where royal women used to watch out the routine
works of the Conference hail.
Anthapuram
Anthapuram is a separate spacious room for the queens.
It has a p0111 to provide for playing royal ladies with their
friends. Polil is looked like a park having full evergreen
trees and flower plants. A small tank is also dug for
the swimming of the royal women.
Manimandapam
Manimandapam is an important part of the palace in which
the kings and the queens used to take rest and to consult
with eacn other about the important decisions of the
government secretly. The idols of elephants and deers were
made of gold and installed in the manimandapam. This is
mentioned by the Tamil Epic Seevaga Chintamani. It adds more
that the unjal was decorated with gold and gems.
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Guest House
Guest House is a private hall for lodging the foreigners
and royal relatives from other countries. They were
embellished with ornamental work. They were well provided
with warm hospitality.
Treasury
Treasury was constructed in the middle of the rooms so
as to prevent the burgalary. Most of the jewels and money
were stored well. Its inner wall was coated with copper
plates.
Dinning Hall
Dinning Hall is benefitted to feed the people who lived
in the palace. Many big vessels were preserved there.
Adjoining it, was a kitchen in which foods were prepared with
care.
Balcony
Balcony or portico had been constructed on the enclosed
wall of the entrance of the palace from where, royal women
could watch the outer world.
At the first floor of the palace is a Nila Mutrum on its
surface the royal family used to take food and to take rest.
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Compound Wall
The enclosed wall is properly fortified with strong
granite stones. It has three layers to prevent the foreign
invasion. The inner side wall of the palace, it is informed
by Nedunelvadai, was fitted with copper plates. Flowered
designs were drawn on the inner wall.
Armoury
Armoury is the storage of the weapons of the country.
It is properly protected.
Living Rooms
Living rooms were ventilated properly, which were used
by the royal families.
Temple
The yet another part of the palace is a temple. The
palace of king Sargon (720 B.C.) at Khorsabad had a huge
temple for the worship of God Ashur. Likewise, Tamil kings
had built temples inside the palace for their favourite Gods
or Goddesses.
Swimming Pool
Inside the palace, it was provided the Neerali (Swimming
Pool) or tank to take bathe by the royal families. It was
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planned to pour the fresh water and to let out the dirty
water from the pool.
Granary
Granary was built in the inner circle of the palaces and
kept in secret. The materials collected as tax from the
people were stored in this granary.
There was a planned drainage system at the top of the
palaces. Rainy water could come out through the structure
called as Pmbanangal which was built in the shape of the
mouth of a fish.
Nedunelvadai, the Tamil work describes the night lamps
in the palaces which were named as Pavaivillakku made of
bronze and moulded by the greeks. It reveals us that there
was relationship between Tamilnadu and Greece.
Silapathikaram, an epic in Tamil, points out the palaces
as they were built in the cities and towns. They were called
as Veyaa madanyal which were built with fired bricks and
palmyra juice mixed mortar. These palaces had separate rooms
called as Koodam, Thayakkattu and Adukkalai. The balcony of
the palaces faced towards south so as to be ventilated. The
roof of the palaces was tiled with golden tiles.
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The inner walls of the palace have functions: to protect
the interior from weather, to support the upper floor sand
roof, to enclose the space of the rooms and to give privacy.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF PALACES
The palaces of the ancient kings had economic
significance. The wealth and gold and the income of the
country were accounted by the experts. There were labourers
of all kinds like carpenters, cobblers, masons, blacksmiths,
goldsmiths, builders of the buildings and so on. Gold coins
were used for trade purposes. The barter system of trade was
followed.
Rice, Plantain and sugarcane were grown. The royal
family wore woolen and costly silk dresses. Commodities were
stored in the godown of the palace. Horses of high breed
were imported.
Ornamentals made of nine gems and Ivory were used. Soft
muslin clothe were used for making dresses.
Furnitures, used in the palaces were made of teak and
sandal. Many valuable commodities were gifted to the kings
during their birth day. Foreign trade was developed. The
ancient Tamil kings had oversees commerce and trade with
South East Asia, China, Arabia, Greece and Rome.
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Many Greeks and the Romans had come to the Tamil country
for commerce.
SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PALACES
Social and cultural life of the people, lived in the
palaces was divided into 'Agam' and 'Puram'.
Agam emphasised life with love and puram stressed the
values like valour, munificense and honour.
The society was divided only on functional divisions and
not on any caste division.
Women were treated with respect and honour.
The royal families had closely related by the practice
of marriage. There was no inter marriage system. The royal
princes had loved an ordinary woman in the society. If their
love was not fulfilled, they were prepared to expel from the
country. It is named as 'Uadanpokku'. There is a lady
friend for conveying the news among the lovers.
Regarding the puram, wars and battles were important.
The princes did heroic deed to marry the princes.
EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PALACES
Royal families were taught good education. The children
were sent to the teachers to learn and to develop their
knowledge. Gurukula System of education was followed.
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Women in the palaces were educated. A library was
established in side the palace to develop their knowledge.
Best example is Saraswathi Mahal Library in Sarboji Palace at
Tanjavur.
Special teachers were appointed to educate the princes
or princesses. The women in the palaces learnt music,
dance, drawing and paintings.
SELECTED PALACES IN TAMILNADU
The locality of selected palaces in Tamilnadu is noted
in Fig.4.
1. Padmanabapuram Palace
Padmanabapuram was the capital city of Venadu under Raja
Marthanda Varman. In the year. 1744, Raja Marthanda Varman
dedicated Venadu to Lord Sri Padmanaba Swamy at
Thiruvananthapuram and renamed it as State of Trivancore and
called his capital city as Padmanabapuram.
The oldest book Kerelorppathi clearly cites the
importance of Padmanabapuram. Raja Marthanda Varman came to
power in the year 1729 AD and he built the palace of
Padmanabapuram in 1740 AD. The extent of the palace is 6
acres and the area of building is 3 1/2 acres.
1
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The Padmanabapuram palace was well fortified by granite
stones around it. Raja Marthanda Varman built the palace
under the architectural style of Kerala. This monument
consists of stone sculptures, wooden sculptures and wall
paintings with weapon and armed materials.
In the north eastern corner of the palace, there is a
temple for Sri Ramar built by Raja Marthanda Varman. In the
inner pirakaram of the temple, scenes from Ramayana were
sculptured on the wood. This temple is one of the best
monuments in Kanniyakumari District.
The palace has P00 Mandapam, Thai Kottam, Conference
Hall and a long and spacious dinning hail having a huge size
of pickle jars.
2. Ettiapuram Palace
It is situtate in Tuticorin District. A small chieftain
from Chandragiri fort in Andhra state came here and ruled
over the small samasthanam of Ettiapuram.
Peria Appa Nayak was the first Chieftain in Ettiapuram.
They were respected as small chieftain till the Nawab period
and they were considered as the Palayakarars in Thirumalai
Naiker period who ruled over the Madurai Region.
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The Pandiya King Adhi Veera Prakiraman donated some land
in Illampuvanam where the Ettappa Nayaks built a fort in 1440
AD for the Nayaks controlled the maravas at Karukondanpatti.
The present Ettiapuram palace was built by Jaga Veera
Ramakumara Ettappa Nayak in 1567 AD. When Ettiapuram Nayak
went to the forest with his crew for hunting, his huge and
fearful dogs drove some rabbits very fastly. But it was
wondered that in a particular place, the rabbits drove back
the dogs. They returned as fast as they could. The Nayak
selected that particular place for constructing the palace.
In later period, it became a town named as Ettiapuram and the
Nayak built a temple named as Etteeswaramoorthy.
The palace had been constructed in the structure of
eight pillars and eight windows. Its extent is nearly 50
acres. The main entrance is called as Aachara Vasal. The
palace aacharam (rituals) began from this gateway. Those who
wanted to meet the nayak should wear durban on his head and
Dhoti with panchakacham but should not wear shoes or
slippers.
Then one can see the darbar mandapam which is carried by
huge pillars, polished well. Next is crowning mandapam
having full of paintings denoting the glorious ancient
period.
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The main mandapam is made of woods. Yali turned the
head of an elephant made of wood engraved in one of the
pillars. There is a rounded stone weighing 75 kilos to test
the warriors who had to throw it as far as he could.
The way to the old palace has many turning bents so that
one could not see the inner portion of it, because royal
women were living in the old palace. The royal women could
watch the dancing programme only through the windows which
are specially designed. Nobody could see the royal women but
they could see the audience.
Nearly 500 years have passed still the palace appears
majestically and splendidly. By this monument, one can
understand the Ettappa dynasty.
3. Thirumalai Naick Palace
This palace was built in 1636 AD by Thirumalai Naick,
the greatest of the Naik rulers of Madurai. The palace is
a majestic and splendid building. The building is in square
type. At the centre of the building, there is an open
ground. Huge pillars are carrying the entire building.
The palace has conference hall in the western side,
Right to the hall, there is an anthapuram or the queen's
palace. At the top of the conference hail are many niches
from where royal women had watched the conference meeting.
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The pillars of the palace are round and in big size.
They are well polished with mortar. There are many halls
which served as the Treasury, Granary, Armouries and
Government Offices.
The privacy mandapam for the kings was built with bricks
and mortar so that one could not enter into it. Most of the
materials used for constructing the palace were sand, clay,
limestone, and Palmyra juice and Karukkai juice.
From Vandiyur, sands had been dug and transported to the
palace sight. Now this place is called as Vandiyur Teppakulam.
The palace is designed in Vijayanagar style. Most of the
parts of the palace are well embellished with artistic value.
At present it is being opened for visitors, and in the night
light and sound exhibition has been conducted since the world
Tamil Conference held at Madurai.
4. Thanjavur Palace
This palace was built by Chola Kings. It had been the
home of many chola, Nayak and Maratha Kings. It is a grand
pile of building with big Corridors and halls.
The entrance of the palace is well decorated with
artistic work. Raja Sarabhoja remodelled the palace in the
latest design.
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The famous Saraswathi mahal library is in this palace
It contains about 35,000 volumes in Sanskrit, Tamil, Marathi
and some European languages.
These books deal with Science, Medicine, Engineering,
Astronomy, Painting and Dancing. The nayak and the maratha
rulers collected these over a period of three hundred years.
The Sangeetha Mahal, the mansion of music, is perfectly
planned in acoustics and other details. This mahal was built
by Raja Sarabhoji in 1779. It looks like the court of the
Thirumalai Nayak's palace in Madurai.
SECTION V: HISTORY CURRICULUM IN SCHOOLS -
A CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
WHAT IS HISTORY?
History is the study of man and his wonderful
development in the world. It is said to be the queen or
mother of social science. It is the meaningful record of
human achievements. It helps us to understand the present and
to some extend to predict the future.
The word history is of Greek origin and originally it
meant, 'enquiry or investigation' The word was used to refer
the process of enquiry. It is also used to the knowledge
obtained as the result of enquiry into different human
actions and his written accounts.
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Herodotus, the father of History, followed the principle
of enquiry. He gives as history - scientific abstract,
concentrated, shorn of all elements of myth.
Thucydides, living in the fifth century, believed that
real History could deal only with contemporary events.
History is a meaningful story of mankind depicting the
details of what happened to man and why they happened. It is
concerned with man in time. It deals with a series of events
and each event occurs at a given point in time. History is
concerned with man in space. Individuals and nations are
studied in spatial context namely the physical and
geographical environment. The interaction of men on
environment is a dynamic one. So, it treats the play of time
and space on man. It treats the play of man upon space
through time.
History is a study of the totality of man's behaviour.
Man's achievement in every field of life, political,
economic, social, cultural and religious at local, regional,
national and international levels are the subject matter of
History. It starts with the past, makes present its sheet of
anchor and points to the future.
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WHAT DOES CURRICULUM MEAN?
Curriculum consists of the totality of experiences that
a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on
in the school, in the class room, library, laboratory,
workshop and playground and in the numerous contacts between
the teachers and pupils.
Curriculum must respond to the needs of the society and
must train and equip the individuals to develop their
potentialities to their full so that they may be able to make
their contribution to the good and enrichment of the society
of which they are integral parts.
It includes all the experiences which are utilised by
the school to attain the aims of education
The understandings, attitudes and appreciations,
abilities and skills which pupil needs now in the solution of
his current problems, turn out to be similar to those of
which, he will need later in solving adult problems.
Understandings attitudes and abilities needed in adult life
begin their growth in nursery and are developed through
continuously by experiences until the learner emerges into an
adult replaced by a wealth of suggested materials and
experiences.
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Curriculum may be defined as all the experiences that
pupils have under the direction of school. It includes both
classroom activities as well as play. All such activities
should promote the needs and welfare of the individual and
society.
There are certain broad areas of knowledge, skills and
appreciations with which all students must come into contact
and these must find a place in the curriculum.
The aim of education is to secure the harmonious
development of the personality - development of body, mind
and soul.
Observation method of learning is suggested for History
learning by Pestolozzi.
Learning in youth should always be a spontaneous process,
a result of free activity, a living and original products.
Inner capacities of the students should be developed. For
this, visiting monuments is an important process.
By visits, the pupils gain valuable mental exercises as
well as concrete experiences. Their minds profit by the
disciplinary activity. Their interest in the subject is
strengthened. They learn how and where to pursue their study
by this method. The studies illuminated by direct
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experiences ensure more meaning, more direct appeal and more
reality value.
Architecture, sculptures and paintings in the monuments
are three great arts which appeal to the spirit through the
eyes.
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING HISTORY
The specific objectives of teaching history are as
follows:
1. To give proper conceptions of time, space and society
History reveals the conception of time, space and
society and the relationship that links the present with the
past, the local with the distant and personal and national
life with lives and cultures of other men and women elsewhere
in time and space.
2. To Promote Self Understanding
It is true that a person who does not understand himself
has not become fully human. To know who one is requires
historical perspective. The special interests and habits are
an outcome of his past interaction with a particular
environment.
3. To cultivate valuable intellectual attitudes
The study of history serves as a medium for cultivating
valuable intellectual attitudes. History stresses the need
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for objectivity in formulating judgement, the careful
weighing of evidence and the necessity for searching analysis
before a final decision is reached.
4. To broaden the intellect
Present and future are the two dimensions. History gives
a third dimension - a study of past - this is extremely
necessary for rational and objective thinking.
5. To socialise the pupils and give a sense of belongingness
The history teacher can impress on the minds of the
pupils how people have suppressed personal impulses in the
interest of harmonious social life. Well-informed and
enlightened citizens will be able to promote common welfare.
6. To impart mental training
The mental training stimulates thought, judgement and
discrimination and creates a scientific attitude in the
adolescent as a counterbalance to his emotional instability.
7. To built intelligent citizenship
One of the major objectives of -eaching history to the
children in the secondary school is to build intelligent
citizenship for democracy. A nation with democratic
institutions must produce a reasonably educated citizenry if
these institutions are to survive.
8. To teach moral principles
That moral training is one important function of the
teaching of history, everybody will concede. By the study of
the great saints, heroes and reformers, the child will learn
to be courageous, truthful, just and altruistic.
9. To cultivate forward look
The knowledge of history will bring to light factors
which govern the course of human affairs and also show that
the actual course of past events may be a more accurate
measure of what is possible than are the best laid schemes of
reformers.
10. To help in developing a philosophy of life
One of the purposes for studying history is that it
provides valuable insights into various possible schemes of
life-interpretation. A cultural conception of history shows
how tools, institutions and symbolic systems may be taken as
a key to the meaning of human affairs and so on.
Further it may be included in the objectives of teaching
history as to help resolve our contemporary social and
individual problems, to foster national feelings, to foster a
cosmopolitan outlook and to develop some useful mechanical
skills.
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HISTORY CURRICULUM AT SCHOOL LEVEL
Lower Primary Level - Standards I to IV
The children of first and second standards are, under
the new syllabus, studying environmental study. Family and
its members, important festivals in Tamil and human beings'
living places are the subject matter that the first standard
children have to study.
The second standard children learn on family and joint
family for the formation of society, local festivals and
national festivals like Independence Day, Children's Day and
Teachers' Day.
The third standard children study their District history
as local history. The third standard children in Tirunelveli
District learn on the History of Tirunelveli District. Some
historically important places are known to them. Sri
Nelliappar Temple at Tirunelveli and its musical pillars are
taught to them in history. History and other monuments of
Tirunelveli are dealt within III Std. Early Pandya rulers who
ruled over Tirunelveli particularly Nedunchelia Pandyan I are
being taught to them. Important cities like Tenkasi,
Courtallam, Sankarankoil, Ambasamudram and Tirunelveli are
included in the syllabus of III Std.
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The fourth standard children learn our culture and
heritage in history. Further they study about India and
World.
Upper Primary Level - Standards V to VII
The curriculum for the upper primary school level aims
to develop one's national patriotism. They learn about
sangam age and the administration of Tamil kings.
The fifth standard pupils learn our national movement in
history. They learn social science in which history, civics
and geography are dealt with.
The sixth standard pupils to learn about Tamil Kings and
Sangam Age in History. They learn Tamil Culture and the
administration of Chera, Chola, Pandya and Pallavas.
The Seventh Standard pupils, study about the later
imperial cholas from 850 to 1200 AD and later pandyas from
1200 AD to 1300 AD. They must have to learn the socio-
economic-religious and cultural conditions of Tamil Kingdoms.
Their contributions to art, architecture and fine arts are to
be dealt with by them.
Secondary Level - Standards VIII to X
The Vilith Standard pupils have the syllabus which
includes European settlements in India, Carnatic wars between
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French and British settlers. Rise and development of British
rule in India, Impact of economics, social reforms and the
method of Education in India under the British rule. The
First war of Independence in 1857 AD, Development of Indian
constitution Economic changes and social reforms, National
Integration and constitutional set up in Free India.
The syllabus for IX Std. pupils includes Stone Age,
River Valley Civilization, Vedic Civilization, Buddhism and
Jainism, and Civilisation of Greeks and Romans. The
religions of Jew and Christ, Medieval Europe and Present
Europe are to be dealt with.
The History syllabus for X Std. includes the Imperialism
in Europe, the Doctrines of Capitalism, Socialism and
Communism, First World War, League of Nation, World War II
and the origin of UNO. Regarding Indian History the Xth Std.
students have to study the reforms in social and religious
aspects. The national movement has to be learnt by them from
1885 AD to 1950 AD with unification of Indian territories and
the work of Vallabai Patel.
Higher Secondary Level - Standards XI and XII
The syllabus for XI Standard History students deals
with Indian History from the Stone Age to the fall of Lodi
Dynasty under the Delhi Sultanate Ibrahim Lodi in the first
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battle of Paniput in 1526 A.D. They aim to learn the
complete history of our country from the early periods.
Regarding the Tamilnadu History, the XI Standard Students
have to study the Sanyam Age, Imperial Cholas, Pallavas and
Pandyas.
The syllabus for XII Standard History students deals
with Indian History from the Mohul Empire 1526 AD to present
day. They have to learn modern Tamil Nadu History, and free
India and her economic growth and development.
SECTION VI: RELATED STUDIES
A very brief account of the studies most related to the
present investigation in terms of the theme 'Out-of--classroom
Activities as Learning Experiences' alone is presented
herewith.
"An Experimental Study of Teaching Physics by the
Traditional and Problem Solving Methods", carried out by
Kamalakanthan, T.S. (1968) shows that the X Std. pupils
taught through problem solving method have gained and
retained of knowledge and abilities in a better way as
compared to those who were taught by traditional methods.
"An Experimental Study of Teaching Natural Sciences at
the Primary Level in Central Schools" was carried out by
Sharma, N.D. (1978) with a view to compare the effectiveness
130
of the self activity and guided activity. Guided activity is
found more effective than self activity in respect of concept
formation, and development of scientific attitude and skills.
"An Experimental Comparison of Different Methods of
Teaching High School Biology" by Jha (1979) reveals that
activity-based approach in learning science is better in
terms of knowledge, application of scientific knowledge and
development of scientific skills.
Exemmal, J. (1980) conducted an investigation on
"Construction of Certain Models for Teaching School Botany
using Environmental and Ethnic Resources and Testing the
Efficacy of Such Models",. Teaching models were constructed
for six topics of Standard IX. The efficacy of these models
was tested experimentally using parallel group design. The
significant findings of the study are as follows:
i) The environmental approach is significantly superior to
the formal approach in terms of stimulating cognitive
growth, developing interest in scientific adtivities and
achievement in the examination.
ii) Environmental approach is found more favourable and
effective to rural and Low socio-economic status group
students as compared to their counterparts.
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iii) A majority of the teachers and experts suggest that even
higher level concepts could be taught in lower classes
if they are provided in the form of first hand
experiences.
A study on "Environmental Approach of Teaching in
Primary Schools" by Rajput, J.S., Saxena, A.B. and Jadhao,
V.G. (1980) indicates that environmental approach is
significantly better than the traditional approach in
creating environmental awareness.
An "Evaluative Study of State Level Science Fair and
Educational Exhibition - 1980" was carried out by SCERT
(1980). The study was conducted with a sample of ten
organisers, sixty teachers and two hundred pupil
participants. They were administered different
questionnaires. The significant findings of the study are as
follows:
i) More than 50% teachers feel that the themes selected for
the science fair were clearly brought out.
ii) Almost all pupil participants feel that the science fair
was helpful to clarify various concepts in science.
iii) The organisers feel that pupils' creativity was fully
exhibited in the fair.
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iv) Teachers feel that the fair was helpful in bringing out
students' creative talents.
v) The organisers and the teachers feel that the fair was
very effective as the students were able to learn many
new concepts which otherwise could not be easily taught
in the class-room.
vi) The pupil participants feel that the teachers use new
methods in teaching science after the science fair.
Joshi, B.P. (1981) made "A Study on Development of
Science Education for Upper Primary Classes based on the
Environmental Approach". It indicates that the environment
outside the school is potentially significant for learning
purposes.
"A Critical-Comparative Study of the Secondary School
Science Curricula of Kerala and Tamilnadu" by Krishnan, K.
(1981) reveals that both the curricula of Kerala and
Tamilnadu are not satisfactory in terms of two dimensions,
viz. Pedagogical-curricular and Methodological-
Instructional.
Deopuria, R.P. (1984) made "A Comparative Study of
Teaching Science through Environmental and Traditional
Approaches in the Schools of Madhyapradesh",. The study
employed environmental approach in the experimental group and
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the traditional approach in the control group. The study was
conducted at primary, middle and high school levels. The
significant findings of the study are as follows:
i) The experimental groups of standards VIII, IX and X
secured higher scores than the controlled groups.
ii) The experimental group of primary schools attained
considerable improvement in environmental awareness than
the controlled group.
A study by Savadamuthu, M. (1989) reveals the following
significant findings:
j ) The seventeen kinds of chemical-based small scale
industries in Dindigul District involved in the study
are found to possess curricular potentials for students'
chemistry learning at secondary and higher secondary
stages of education extensively.
ii) All the teachers and entrepreneurs involved in the study
are for students' learning chemistry in industries and
for permitting students for learning in their industries
respectively.
iii) Half the number of teachers are prepared to conduct even
special classes for making up the regular school work
which may be lost due to industrial visits.
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iv) A majority (58.8%) of entrepreneurs are prepared to
permit students to carry out experiments in their
industries even by bearing the cost of the chemicals.
V)
A majority (64.7%) of entrepreneurs are prepared to
permit students even during industries' working hours
and 29.4% prefer rest hours, while 5.9% prefer
industrial holidays.
vi) A greater majority (76.5%) of entrepreneurs are for
students' apprenticeship training in their industries
during summer holidays without any payment to the
students.
A study entitled, "An Vilith Literature Based
V.S.History Classroom: Reactions, Responses, Attitudes,
Perceptions and Participation" carried out by Elizabeth July
(1990) reveals that children are for cooperative learning and
varieties of learning activities.
"A Comprehensive Analysis of Teacher/School
Administrator Attitudes Toward Out-door Education/School
Camping Kyonggi" was done by Han, Eun Sok (1991), with a view
to: (1) diagnose teachers' and school administrator's
attitudes towards the value of outdoor education and school
camping and skill level necessary for conducting outdoor
education and school camping programmes. (2) identify broad
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goals and programme objectives for school camping as well as
constraining factors based on the opinion of teachers and
school administrators. (3) ascertain variables that
influence teachers' and school administrators' attitudes
towards the outdoor education and school camping.
Among one thousand fifty questionnaires sent, seven
hundred and thirty three were received back and seven hundred
and twenty three responses were analysed by ANOVA, MANOVA and
factor analysis.
The significant findings of this study are as follows:
(1) In general, teachers and school administrators are quite
positive towards the value of outdoor education and
school camping.
(2) Teachers and school administrators are not equipped with
the knowledge and skills related to outdoor education
and school campaign.
(3) Among the seven constraining factors, uadministrative
difficulties and teacher inconvenience" were considered
the most potential.
(4) Several variables were found to influence teachers' and
school administrators' attitudes towards outdoor
education and school camping.
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Indirani,S. (1992) carried out ".A Critical-Comparative
Study of the Curricula of B.Sc. and M.Sc. Home Science
Courses in Tamilnadu".. The significant findings of the study
in terms of Methodological - instructional are as follows:
1. The B.Sc. and M.Sc. Home Science curricula of Madras
University are satisfactory and moderately satisfactory
respectively.
2. The B.Sc. of Bharathidasan University is moderately
satisfactory.
3. The B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Madurai Kamaraj University are
satisfactory and moderately satisfactory respectively.
4. Both the B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Gandhigram Rural University
as well as Avinashilingam Deemed University are
satisfactory.
5. The B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Tamilnadu Agricultural University
are satisfactory and moderately satisfactory respectively.
6. Both the B.Sc. and M.Sc. of Queen Mary's Autonomous
College are moderately satisfactory.
7. The B.Sc. of Seethalakshmi Rarnasamy College and Saradha
College are moderately satisfactory.
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A study by Sreekumar, V. (1992) reveals the following
significant findings:
1. The eighteen kinds of small scale industries situated in
Kanyakumari district and involved in the study are found
possessing excessive curricular potentials for students'
learning biology at secondary and higher secondary
stages.
2. All the teachers, entrepreneurs and parents are for
students' learning biology in industries, for permitting
students to learn biology in their industries and for
their wards to start their own industries respectively.
3. Half the number of teachers prefer students' learning in
industries during school holidays, while around half the
number of teachers are prepared to conduct special
classes for compensating the loss of regular work due to
industrial visits.
4. Half the number of entrepreneurs are intended to permit
students during industries' working hours and 26.7%
prefer rest hours, while 23.3% prefer industrial holidays.
5. A majority (53.3%) of the entrepreneurs are prepared to
permit students to carry-out experiments in their
industries even by bearing the material cost.
6. A majority (70%) of entrepreneurs are prepared to permit
students' apprenticeship training in their industries
during summer holidays without any payment to the
students.
7. Above half the number (54%) of parents are prepared to
permit their wards to visit industries during holidays
and 24% during morning, while 25% are for visits during
evening.
8. Half the number of parents are prepared to meet the
expenses for their wards' industrial visits.
A study by Grace, A.N. (1994) reveals the following
significant findings:
1. The 21 kinds of small scale industries situated in
Madurai district and involved in the study are found
endowed with extensive curricular potentials for
students' Physics learning at secondary and higher
secondary stages of education.
2. All the three types of personnel under study,
viz. Parents (95%), Teachers (91%) and Entrepreneurs
(78%) are for students' visits to industries for
learning purposes.
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3. A vast majority (78%) of the parents are for meeting the
cost of their wards' industrial visits and 73% have an
idea of encouraging their wards to start their own
industries.
4. About 46% of the teachers are for students' visits as
per the industries' convenience.
5. More than three fourth (78%) of the entrepreneurs intend
to permit students' visits during industries' working
hours.
6. A significant section (36%) of the entrepreneurs are
prepared to permit students to undergo apprenticeship
training without payment during summer holidays.
The studies presented above indicate that the out-of-
classroom activities as learning experiences can very well be
organised since all categories of personnel like teachers,
parents and entrepreneurs are for the same.
The review of literature presented above enabled the
investigator to conceive the design of the present study and
execute it successfully.