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CHAPTER-II

THE MISSIONARY ENCOUNTER AND RENAISSANCE IN TRAVANCORE

The conservative community of India passed through a great Renaissance

during the last decades of nineteenth century, that it had not experienced before.

It was an awakening of the mind, soul and psyche of the nation. The Renaissance

coupled with socio-religious reforms paved the way for modern life.

From the Portuguese period itself, the seeds of Renaissance were sown in

Travancore by the Catholic missionaries. The Catholic missionaries studied a

large number of indegenous languages and contributed to the religious, cultural,

literary, educational and linguistic traditions of Kerala. They set up schools and

seminaries where, besides spiritual education, western sciences and languages

were taught.The printing press was first introduced in India by the Portuguese1.

Malayalam printing was first done in Rome by the Carmelites of

Varappuzha in the eighteenth century. From the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries,

a large number of Catholic missionary orders like Franciscans, Dominicans,

Jesuits, Augustinians and Carmelites came to Kerala. Fr.Mathevus, a Carmelite

missionary, wrote many portions of ‘Hortus Malabaricus’2. Paulinose Sancta

Bartholomeo or Paulinose ‘Patiri’, the author of ‘Siddharoopam’, Ernest

Hanxeledern or Arnose ‘Patiri’, the author of ‘Chathuranthyam’ and ‘Puthen

Pana’ and Fr.Clement Pianius, the author of ‘Samkshepa Vedartham’ also

contributed towards the process of modernizing the land.

But it was the Protestant Missionaries who mainly facilitated the

emergence of this awakening and they were earnestly supported and promoted by

the British government and Travancore government.The nineteenth century

Renaissance and the following socialization, democratization and politicization of

1. A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, D.C. Books, Kottayam, 2007, p.328. 2. John Francis Pallathu, Missionarymarude Sahitya Sevanangal, (Mal.), Jyothir Bhavan,

Kalamassery, 1986, p.29.

57

all sections of society including women, intertwined with each other and laid the

foundation of a new earth and a new sky in Travancore. Social transformation of

women is an important factor for the development of a nation. The introduction

of English education and western liberal thought among women by the Christian

missionaries and the consequent efforts of the local rulers and social reformers in

the field of female education went a long way in shaping the modern women of

Kerala. As a result of their efforts, women retained their self-esteem and honour

from a stage of dependency, slavery and insecurity.

Western liberal ideas of nineteenth century such as humanitarianism,

egalitarianism and rationality created awareness in society about the oppressed

condition of women and the need to modify the traditions concerning them.The

agencies which facilitated the emergence of a great awakening during the last

decades of nineteenth century were the British government, the western

missionaries and the English educational system3. During the nineteenth century,

the British slowly laid the foundations of a modern state. Education, economic

assistance, telegraph, newspaper, printing press etc. came from British

government.

By the Charter Act of 1813, British government decided to set apart one

lakh rupees annually for the revival and improvement of literature and the

encouragement of learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion

of knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in

India4. ‘Macaulay’s Minutes’ and ‘Wood’s Dispatch’ also promoted the modern

education of Indians5.

Education in nineteenth century Travancore was imparted through Sabha

Matts under Brahmin Gurus for Brahmins, Ezhuthu pallis under Ezhuthachans for

3. Thomas Alex, A History of the First Cross Cultural Mission of the Marthoma Church, 1910-

2000, ISPCK, Delhi, 2007, p.1. 4. K.M. Panicker, The Foundations of New India, George Allen and Unwin Limited, London,

1963, p.116. 5. R.C. Majumdar, et.al., An Advanced History of India, Mac Millan India Ltd., Madras, 1990,

p.812.

58

common people and Kalaris under Kurup or Gurukkal for physical training6.

Education in schools was denied to women and lowcastes7. The Christian

missionaries took the first solid step towards the beginning and dispersal of

Western knowledge. As the state compromised with them for the purpose of

modernization; it provided a large amount of donations and grants to the

missionaries8.

The missionaries who were enlightened by the scientific thought and

Renaissance used education as a weapon against social differences and casteism

and moulded the modern history of Kerala9.They can be aptly called ‘Militant

Missionaries’10.The prominent Protestant missions in Travancore were the

London Missionary Society (L.M.S.), Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.),

Church of England Zenana Missionary Society (C.E.Z.M.S.), Baptist Missionary

Society and Evangelical Missionary Society.

Evangelisation for Christ was the only aim of missionary societies and for

that they wanted to educate the women also.They believed that the Church of

Christ will never appear in its great beauty, unless the foundation of Christian

education is laid in the minds of its members by the hands of a Christian mother.

Moreover, the missionaries realized that education was a powerful way to raise

the womenfolk from their low status in the society11. The missionaries co-

ordinated evangelization and social work and invested their energy for the

upliftment of women and the downtrodden. The missionaries were mainly

interested in spreading female education through three types of activities viz.,

opening of day schools for girls, establishment of boarding schools for girls and

domestic instruction in families of middle and higher classes.

6. K.N. Ganesh, Keralathinte Innalekal, (Mal.), Department of Cultural Publications,

Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1997, p.281. 7. Samuel Nellimukal, C.M.S. Colleginte Charithram, (Mal.), Benjamin Bailey Research

Institute, Kottayam, 1997, p.29. 8. Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu State Travancore 1858-1936, Oxford University

Press, New Delhi, 1998, p.82. 9. Malayalam weekly, 23 Dhanu, 1175 M.E. 10. Robin Jeffrey. The Decline of Nayar Dominance, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1976,

p.37. 11. R.J.Hepzi Joy, History and Development of Education of Women in Kerala (1819-1947),

Seminary Publications, Trivandrum, 1995, p.206.

59

The effort of the missionaries was to improve the social position of the

girls, provide them with knowledge and skills and to Christianize them. Girls’

schools were opened with the aim of giving girls enough general knowledge

along with training in piety, etiquette, morals and home management

techniques12. It can also be argued that it was largely the challenge posed by

Christian missionaries in the nineteenth century that provoked the contemporary

social reform movement.

The London Missionary Society or L.M.S. was the first Protestant

community which sent missionaries to Travancore and the first L.M.S.

missionary to reach Travancore was Rev. William Tobias Ringletaube in 1806. In

1809, he opened the first English school of Trivandrum at Mylady in South

Travancore. The seeds of Protestant Christianity sown by the L.M.S. fell on a soil

made extremely fertile through the decay of traditional institutions13. The seeds

of reformation sowed by Ringletaube germinated and in course of time grew in

bulk to give shade and shelter to the unprivileged14.Ringletaube was followed by

Rev. Charles Mead, who was an educator, builder, economist and social

reformer. He started a commercial school in Nagercoil in 1820, where printing,

book binding, leather making, paper making, weaving, silk worm rearing etc.

were taught. He also started a bazaar school, an industrial school, and a printing

press. He built a Christian village in Nagercoil. He fought against slavery and

Oozhiyam and worked for the right to wear upperclothes for avarnas.

Rev.Charles Mead was the architect of Nagercoil Seminary of the L.M.S. It was

Mrs. Johanna Mead who helped Rev. Charles Mead to implement his scheme of a

Seminary for boys in Nagercoil. With her missionary habits and knowledge of

language, she was of tremendous help to her husband15.

12. J.Devika, Engendering Individuals, The Language of Reforming in Early Twentieth Century

Keralam, Orient Longman Private Limited, New Delhi, 2007, p.88. 13. R. N. Yesudas, The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore (1806-1908),

Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum, 1980, p.1. 14. R.N. Yesudas, A People’s Revolt in Travancore- A Backward Class Movement for Social

Freedom, Manju Publishing House, Trivandrum. 1975. p.2. 15. Joy Gnanadasan, A Forgotten History, The Story of the Missionary Movement and the

Liberation of People in South Travancore, Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute, Madras, 1994, p.69.

60

Swati Thirunal Maharaja, the then king of Travancore, after visiting the

Nagercoil Seminary of the L.M.S., invited John Roberts, the Head Master of the

Seminary, to start an English School at Trivandrum16. It later came to be known

as ‘Raja’s Free School’17. This school developed into a college and V.Nagam

Aiya, the historian, civil servant and chronicler of Travancore, was the first

graduate from this college18.

Mrs. Johanna Mead was the pioneer lady teacher of L.M.S. in South

Travancore. Martha Mault, wife of Rev.Charles Mault, co-operated with Mrs.

Johanna Mead and assisted her ably. Mrs. Johanna Mead launched the most

courageous plan of offering education to girls in Travancore19.

The main goals of the missionary women were to improve social position

of girls, to offer them knowledge and skills, to help them to lead a happy family

life, to help them to bring up their children with good culture, to provide them

moral values for building a home and to help them work for the progress of

society. Mrs. Johanna Mead started the first girl’s boarding school of Travancore

at Nagercoil in 1819 and many other lady missionaries joined her20. Stitching,

weaving, embroidery etc. were taught there. All the teachers were women. This is

the first vocational school for girls in Travancore21.

By the great interest taken by missionaries and their wives, the women

were taught to wear respectable dress, to sing, to sew, to embroider and to work

fine pillow lace. It is to be noted that the lace industry played a vital role in the

social and economic life of the people. It provided employment to many and

made the girls self-supporting. At times of scarcity, it provided means of

livelihood to many women in south Travancore. Mrs. Marsden was in charge of

lace industry. The south Travancore lace work had won many prizes in

16. Nittu Volume V, 1005-5-1, Vol.20, p.180, State Central Archives, Trivandrum. 17. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Kerala State Gazetters, Trivandrum

1992, p.443. 18. Koji Kawashima, op.cit., p.84. 19. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit. p.82. 20. Koji Kawashima, op.cit., p.98. 21. N.Sam, Keralathile Samoohya Navothanavum Sahityavum, (Mal.), N.Sam, Trivandrum,

1988, p.90.

61

exhibitions including those held at Madras, London, Paris and Chicago.

Embroidery industry also flourished during these years. Mrs. Mateer, Mrs.

Knowles, Mrs. Newport and Mrs. Emlyn Jones were closely associated with

embroidery industry. Mrs. Lefever managed to conduct a cross stitch industry at

Attingal.

There was marked difference in manners and speeches of girls educated

there.Visitors passing through Nagercoil were greatly impressed by their

intelligence and accuracy in answering 22. Mrs. Mabbs, Mrs. Whitehouse, Mrs.

Lewis, Miss. Annie Leah Duthie, Mrs. Allan, Miss. Gladys Harries, Miss.

Beatrice Duthie and Miss. Olive Morton were the pioneering among the

missionary wives who worked in Nagercoil Girls’ School23.To avoid dropouts,

the missionaries provided free food, clothing and accommodation to the girls.The

girls’ boarding school at the head station of every Mission District was one of the

best means for influencing the lives of the future Christian women of the

district24.

The missionaries conducted the female education programme at three

levels viz., Primary, Secondary and Teacher education. The educational

institutions of the L.M.S. included Seminaries, Boarding schools, Anglo-

Vernacular Day schools, Village schools and Night Schools. Usually these

Schools opened and closed with a prayer and one hour during the regular school

hours was devoted to Scripture education.Kathaleen Janet Mac Ilroy, a graduate

of London University came to Neyyoor and devoted her service among women

for fifty years, in managing girls’schools, superintending embroidery and lace

industry and supervising the work of Bible women25. The Neyyoor School

opened in 1872 by Mrs. Thompson was the first Day School for high caste Hindu

girls. It employed ‘telling method’ and ‘discussion method’ in teaching. This

helped much in the education of high caste Hindu girls.

22. Samuel Mateer, Native Life in Travancore, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1991,

p.215. 23. Joy Gnanadasan, op.cit., pp.138-141. 24. One Hundredth Annual Report of the L.M.S., 1894, p.190. 25. Joy Gnanadasan, op.cit., p.144.

62

The missionaries published several articles inorder to change public

opinion in favour of female education and compelled the parents to allow their

daughters to remain unmarried at least until the age of fourteen.One such

pamphlet was in Tamil entitled “On the advantages of Female Education”26.

A new era of progress in the realm of female education started with the

arrival of Charles Mead with five more missionaries viz., John Cox, J.S Pattisan,

J.Abbs, James Russel and Ramsay, with their wives27. Girl’s Schools were

established at Nedumangad, Parassala, Marthandam, Kuzhithurai, Kanjirapuram,

Tittuvilai, Erenipuram, Santhipuram and Jamestown. John Cox was appointed in

the Trivandrum Mission in 1838. In the same year Mrs. Cox opened a boarding

school at the haunted hill at Kannammoola. This was the first girl’s school of the

L.M.S. missionaries in Trivandrum28. The leading missionaries during the period

were Duthie and Allan in Nagercoil, James Emyln, Knowles and Foster in

Parassala, Hacker in Neyyoor and Samuel Mateer in Trivandrum.

Among the second generation of missionary ladies who laboured in the

cause of female education in Travancore, Mrs. Abbs, who founded a school at

Parassala, Mrs. Lewis at Santhapuram, Mrs. Cox at Kannammoola, Mrs.

Thompson at Kollam, Mrs. Pitt at Mavelikkara and Mrs. Baker Junior at Pallom

are noteworthy29. Mrs. Abbs went so far as to maintain a Greek class for girls for

sometime30.The teaching and mission work of the missionaries served as outlets

which helped women to socialize, to collectivise, to organize and to lead. Besides

school masters, school mistresses also were employed, which was a novel sight to

the people.Miss. Kate Derry, Miss Mc Donnel, Mrs. Knowles, Mrs. Blackman

and others were some other important women missionaries of L.M.S. in South

Travancore.The following table shows the growth of L.M.S. schools through

years:

26. C.M.Agur, Church History of Travancore, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1990,

p.761. 27. R. N. Yesudas, The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore (1806-1908),

op.cit., p.68. 28. K.S. Mathew and T.K. Sebastian, (eds.), Indian Constitution, Education and Minorities in

Kerala, IRISH, Kannur, 2009, p.2. 29. C.M. Agur, op.cit , p.769. 30. Ibid, pp.768-769.

63

2.1 Number of Schools under L.M.S. between 1870 and 1890 31

Sl. No. Year No.of Schools

1 1870-71 18

2 1875-76 218

3 1880-81 453

4 1885-86 545

5 1890-91 1225

The missionaries opened a large number of vocational schools for slave

children. Girls were taught reading and writing in the morning session while

training in spinning, knitting, sewing and embroidery work were taught in the

afternoon. The different skills they taught gradually developed into various

industries. The missionaries passed a resolution that each girl, by her own

industry, should obtain her freedom before she left the school. But sometimes the

slave master refused to accept money and wanted to retain their slaves. The

missionaries encouraged the teachers who brought slave girls to the schools and,

in addition to their monthly pay, gave them one and a half panam, for every slave

girl32. Thus the active interest taken by the missionaries contributed a lot towards

the spread of girl’s education among the slaves. Several union Christian colleges

like Women’s Christian College of Madras and the Missionary Medical College,

Vellore were opened. These colleges were great blessing for the women of Kerala

and it improved the status of women in society.

Sunday school was started by the L.M.S. missionaries in 1883. This

education included religious education and various lessons on history, geography,

psychology etc. and instructions regarding cleanliness, nutrition, manners, girl’s

education, widow remarriage etc.

31. Suma Rose, Polity, Society and Women, Carmel International Publishing House, Trivandrum,

2004, p.103. 32. C.M. Agur, op.cit., p.892.

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L.M.S. missionaries also started printing presses and publishing houses

and it became a powerful means of disseminating knowledge to the people33.

‘Desopakari’, ‘The Children’s Lamp’, ‘The Mission School Magazine’, ‘Vadhyar

Vilakku’, ‘Matrubodhini’ etc. were some of the periodicals published by them34.

They contained articles on a variety of subjects like religion, science, morals etc.

The South Travancore Medical Mission trained native women in the field

of midwifery, nursing etc. Mrs. Mc Donnel was a fully qualified nurse sent by the

L.M.S. to Travancore as a missionary. She raised funds, trained helpers and

opened a maternity ward in Neyyoor. Ida Scudder, daughter of Dr. Scudder,

completed her medical studies in America but returned to Vellore and became a

fullfledged lady doctor there35. Dr. Joan Thomson was the first qualified

missionary doctor of South Travancore Medical Mission.After her arrival, the

number of women patients who came for treatment and consultation increased

considerably.She spent many months for language study before she began her

work at Neyyoor 36.

It was the ‘Bible Women’ who served as a link between the Medical

Mission and the high caste Hindu women. They taught them about the necessity

of going outside of the house to seek medicine for ailments and childbirth. The

Bible Women visited the houses of the higher class, read to the women and

taught them as occasion offers. As some of them had a good knowledge of

medicine and midwifery, they were helpful to the native women many times37.

L.M.S. Missionaries introduced library system in Travancore. In the Trivandrum

reading room, public lectures were arranged, on various subjects, for the benefit

of the people.The missionaries usually visited the houses of their followers and

gave instructions regarding health, hygiene and moral life. The lessons of moral

life taught by the missionaries helped them to improve their lives38. The

Missionary Churches also educated the people in an indirect way. It was through

33. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., p.90. 34. Malayalam weekly, 23 Dhanu, 1175 M.E. 35. G.Kumara Pillai, op.cit., p.20. 36. L.M.S. Travancore Mission Council Reports and Accounts, 1939, p.36. 37. Ninety nineth Annual Report of the L.M.S., 1893, p.156. 38. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., p.96.

65

the sermons that the preachers gave a sense of assurance and acceptance to the

depressed classes, for whose progress, was essential. Through the Church, people

received instruction in music also.

The Trivandrum branch of ‘Young Men Christian Association’

(Y.M.C.A.) was founded in 1873. Later on many village branches were

established in various parts of South Travancore. The women’s wing of

Y.M.C.A. called ‘Young Women Christian Association’ (Y.W.C.A.) was also

started. Through the Y.W.C.A., the missionaries were able to instruct the people

regarding village economy and cottage industries such as bee keeping, poultry

farming etc39.

The lady missionaries of the Church of England Zenana Missionary

Society (C.E.Z.M.S.) did a commendable work in the education programme of

Travancore. In 1864, Miss.Augusta Blandford, a member of this society, opened

a girl’s school within the Fort of Trivandrum, exclusively for the education of

caste Hindu girls.This school made great progress under her supervision40. Rani

Gowri Lakshmi Bai, the senior Rani of Travancore and Kalliani Ammachi of

Kollam were some of the women who got educated in the Fort School41. The first

Nair woman to pass Matriculation in Travancore was from this school42.

Mrs. Askwith, Mrs.Richards, Miss.Bertha, Miss.Elsy Colman and others

were active workers of C.E.Z.M.S. The Mavelikkara School was opened in 1893

under the leadership of Miss. Mary May, Miss Waiet and Miss. Edith. The Olessa

Mission started by Mrs. Clara Baker in 1895 was the strongest centre of Zenana

Mission in Central Tarvancore43. In 1897, the Cantonment School, run by the

missionaries was elevated to a second grade college and came to be known as

Maharajas Women’s College. It was the first women’s college of Kerala44. In

1894, the Travancore government undertook the responsibility of providing

39. Ibid., p.99. 40. Cover Files 15983/1867 Bundle No. 46, Directorate of State Archives, Trivandrum. 41. V. Nagam Aiya, op.cit., p.475. 42. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), K.S. Books, Kottayam,

2003, p.346. 43. Suma Rose, op.cit., p.119. 44. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.352.

66

education to all sections of people in the land.The Government Girls’ School at

Palayam was elevated to High School in 1890. In 1895, it became H.H.Maharajas

High School for Girls and in 1897, it became a college called Government

Women’s College. Its Principals were Miss. Sara B.Williams, Miss. D.H.Watts,

Miss. E.C.Carapett, Miss. F.E.Gross and Miss. L.C.N.Ouwerkerk. Its first native

Principal was Miss.Anna Nidhiri who served from 1937 to195245.

Among the missionaries who came to Kerala, it was the C.M.S.

missionaries who had a deep educational vision and policy. The ‘Church

Missionary Society’ happened to work in Travancore due to the interest of

Colonel Munro, the British Resident of Travancore46.

Like the other missionary societies, C.M.S. missionaries too came here

for evangelization but later they concentrated in the field of education. The main

aims of C.M.S. were to provide education to women, to enable them to become

good wives, mothers and hostesses, to provide women equal status with men, to

free women from exploitation and to help them to earn jobs and to help their

family. Girls were also taught sewing, knitting and spinning, besides book

learning, so that they could do something towards earning their living, once they

left school.

It was the C.M.S. missionaries who gave an educational infrastructure to

Kerala through their primary and secondary schools47. Unlike the L.M.S., they

concentrated their work in inland areas of Cochin and Travancore. Benjamin

Bailey, Henry Baker and Joseph Fenn were the three missionaries of Kottayam

who gave profound contributions to the educational and cultural arenas of Kerala.

In 1817 Thomas Norton started his first school at Aleppey with forty

students. He was encouraged and supported by Rani Gowri Parvathi Bai48. Mrs.

Norton was one of the pioneers of women education in Kerala. Norton’s School

was opened to students of all castes and communities. English, Malayalam,

45. G. Kumara Pillai, Lakshmi N. Menon, (Mal.), Poornodaya Book Trust, Kochi, 1999, p.29. 46. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., pp.101-102. 47. Malayalam weekly, 23 Dhanu, 1175 M.E. 48. Nittu Volume 1V, 992-6-29, Vol.77, p.110, State Central Archives, Trivandrum.

67

Tamil, Arithmetic and Scripture were taught there. In the girls’ school started by

Mrs. Norton, stitching, knitting, lace work etc. were taught. Teachers were paid

Rs.five per month. Planned curriculum and correct accurate salary were the

peculiar features of Norton’s schools. She also started a ‘Bazaar School’ outside

the mission compound.

Henry Baker started parish schools along with the Syrian churches.

Amelia Baker, wife of Henry Baker, was also a pioneer of girl’s education in

North Travancore49. Henry Baker Junior did his work in the High Ranges from

Mundakkayam to Melukavu. Miss.Mary Baker, daughter of Henry Baker Junior

was the first C.M.S. missionary woman to Travancore from England50.

Elizabeth Ella Bailey, wife of Benjamin Bailey, started a girl’s school at

Kottayam in 1818 which was the first girls’ school in Kerala51.She was known as

a ‘wise woman’ and ‘the right hand of Bailey’52. When more missionaries

arrived, Mrs. Bailey and Mrs. Norton started similar schools at Kottayam,

Alleppey and other places. Bailey’s sister Sara Archer and her husband Thomas

Dawson did commendable services in the field of education in Cochin State53. To

promote school going, the missionaries met all expenses at school and sometimes

promised to pay dowry for their students, at the time of their marriage.

The C.M.S. missionaries opened boarding schools for girls to separate

them from the influences outside. Also they understood that if the children were

boarded and clothed, they could retain them and avoid drop outs to some extent.

Mrs.Norton, Mrs.Bailey, Mrs.Baker, Mrs. Ridsdale and Mrs. Harley were in

charge of girls boarding schools in their respective areas. Total percentage of boy

students under instruction in 1901-02 periods was 76.7 where girls constituted

23.3 percent54. Modern higher education in Kerala was started by the CMS

missionaries. They started a college at Kottayam which was one of the oldest

49. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., p.104. 50. P.T. Kuruvilla Chennamkary, Christhava Missionarymar, (Mal.), Auroville Publishers,

Kottayam, 1968, p.68. 51. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.335. 52. Jnananikshepam magazine, Vol.162, Issue 6, Kottayam, 2012, p.26. 53. K.S. Mathew and T.K. Sebastian, (eds.), op.cit., p.3. 54. Travancore Administration Report for the year 1077 M.E.

68

colleges in India itself. The students of this college were well known for their

good behaviour, service mentality, gentleness, politeness etc. Thereafter gentle

and polite students came to be known as ‘Kottayam type students’55. In 1921, the

Union Christian College was inaugurated at Alwaye. The nucleus of the college

staff was a ‘Fellowship’ of Christians. In 1924, Canon W.E.S. Holland, a C.M.S.

missionary, also joined the ‘Fellowship’56.

Henry Baker Senior and Henry Baker Junior started many mission

churches, mission schools and vernacular schools in the High Ranges. In 1839

Joseph Pitt founded an English School at Mavelikkara which is now known as

‘Bishop Hodges School’. Mrs. Chapman, wife of John Chapman, the Principal of

C.M.S. College also established a girl’s school at Kottayam. When she left for

England, Mrs. Collins managed this school under the name ‘Mrs. Collins Girls’

School’.

Mrs.Painter opened a girl’s school at Pallom. Mrs. Henry Baker Junior

opened girl’s schools at Pallom and Mundakkayam. Mrs. Joseph Pitt started two

girl’s Schools at Mavelikkara. Rev.E.N. Hodges opened Pallom Buchanan School

for higher education of women. The Missionaries underwent education and

evangelization side by side. The important missionary schools intended for higher

education of women, at that time were the Baker Memorial High School for

Girls, Kottayam, the High School for Girls, Nagercoil, and Nicholson Syrian

Girls’ High School at Thiruvalla.

The state of Travancore achieved great progress in the field of female

education during nineteenth century when compared with the University of

London, which opened its gates to women in 1818 and the traditional universities

of Oxford and Cambridge which invited admission of women only after the First

World War in 1914. Mrs. Johnson, daughter of Henry Baker Senior started a

Teacher’s Training School called Normal School in Kottayam in 1848 and in

1857, three women of this school entered the job of teaching57.

55. Samuel Nellimukal, CMS Colleginte Charithram, (Mal.), op.cit., p.238. 56. Hester Smith, My Years at Alwaye, Christhava Mahilalayam, Alwaye, 1976, p.38. 57. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.339.

69

The schools run by Mrs. Baker Senior at Kottayam, Mrs. Baker Junior at

Pallom, Mrs. Johnson at Kottayam, Miss. Baker at Thirunakkara, Annie Baker at

Peerumede and Mundakkayam were some important girls’ schools of Central

Travancore at that time58. Annie Baker lived in Kerala until her death at the age

of sixty six. Besides the school for children of labourers in plantations at

Peerumede, she also led Bible classes for low caste women in the verandah of her

house on every Sunday afternoon.

The girls Schools at Kottayam run by Mrs. Baker, Mrs. Fenn, Mrs.

Bailey, Mrs. Chapman and Mrs. Johnson unified and formed the Baker Memorial

Girl’s High School at Kottayam. This school got generous grants from the

government59. Visakhom Thirunal Rama Varma, the Maharaja of Travancore

visited the school in 1880. He was very much satisfied with its work and sent

fifty rupees as a gift to the students later60.

In 1859 Cambridge Nicholson Institute was founded at Kottayam for

training teachers and missionaries. Its first Principal was Rev. Hawksworth. This

institution also received educational grant from the government61. In 1872, Miss.

Eliza Usborne donated two thousand pounds to C.M.S. to start a female

Teacher’s Training Institute and such an institution was started at Baker School,

Kottayam62.

With Miss.Isabel Baker’s generous help, a school, hospital and coir

factory were established under the title ‘Karappuram Mission’ in the Cherthala

area63. Elizabeth Ann Egar, wife of Rev.J.H.Bishop, Principal of C.M.S. College,

started a girls’ school for Tamil Brahmin girls in 1871. Next year she started two

Konkini Brahmin girl schools at Thazhathangadi and Karappuzha64.

Mrs.Askwith, wife of Rev.F.N.Askwith, Principal of C.M.S. College, also

58. Ibid., pp.340-341. 59. Cover Files 1362/1893 Bundle No. 182, Directorate of State Archives, Trivandrum. 60. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.342. 61. Cover Files 949/1889-90 Bundle No. 137, Directorate of State Archives, Trivandrum 62. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.344. 63. Eira M.Dalton, Fellow Workers with God, Triple Jubilee Publication, C.S.I. Madhya Kerala

Diocese, Kottayam, 1966, p.51. 64. Ibid., p.347.

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worked among native women. She started a Nair primary school and Ezhava

primary school at Kottayam65. Mrs. Jain Neeve, wife of Rev.C.A.Neeve,

Principal of C.M.S. College, worked among Christian women66. In 1930 a pre-

primary school called ‘Little School’ was started at Kottayam by Miss. East. She

also started Kintergarten Teachers Training School at Kottayam for training pre-

primary teachers.

Achievement of C.M.S. in the field of women education between 1857

and 1900 can be understood from the table illustrated below.

2.2 Achievement of C.M.S. in the field of women education between 1857

and 190067.

Year No. of girls Total strength No. of lady teachers

1857 521 2045 8

1887 1187 4665 18

1900 3831 11902 98

A ‘Vanitha Mandiram’ under the leadership of missionary women like

Miss.Kellaway and a Training Home were started at Thiruvalla to train women in

parish work, social service and evangelistic work68. Here lectures were given in

Bible study, child training, evangelism, needle work, house work, nursing etc.

The ‘Bethel Asram’ provided Home Science training classes for older girls. Its

pioneer workers were Miss. Neeve and Miss. Rachel Joseph.

The missionaries held a ‘Christian Home Week’ in every parish to

improve the condition of Christian homes. ‘Bethel Band’ moved from one place

to another and taught girls and women reading, writing and arithmetic and

practical household activities. ‘Sevika Sangham’ was another organization for

65. P.T.Kuruvilla Chennamkary, op.cit., pp.142-143. 66. Ibid., pp.142-143. 67. Suma Rose, op.cit., p.116. 68. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., p.138.

71

outcaste Christian women to serve among themselves69. Girls meetings, Grannies

meetings, Cottage meetings, rallies etc. were also held70. In 1926, a Community

School was started for depressed classes. Bishop M.A.Corefield started a

‘Sisterhood of Women’ in C.M.S. Church71.

In the field of medical work, hospitals and dispensaries were started. A

floating dispensary was started for the use of people of Western Travancore72.

Miss. Knights had a small dispensary at Koothattukulam and Mrs. Brown ran a

dispensary at Kannammoola. A Maternity Welfare Centre was started at

Melukavu and women hostels were started at many places.

‘Christhava Mahilalayam’, Alwaye, was another famous girls’ school in

North Travancore. It was started in 1927 by a group of educated native Christians

at C.M.S. Bungalow, Alwaye73. Its first Principal was Miss E.T.Stevens. Some of

the peculiar activities of this school included ‘Training for Future Life’, ‘Pocket

Money Scheme’, ‘Girl Guides and Blue Birds Programme’ etc. A great event in

their guiding programme was a journey to Trivandrum on the occasion of the

investiture ceremony of Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, to attend the

‘State Rally of Guides and Scouts’74. Eminent teachers like Miss. Hester Smith,

Miss. Sara Chacko and Miss. Sally Coey were included in the teaching staff.

Miss. Sally Coey participated in the A.I.W.C. meeting held at Trivandrum in

193575. The curriculum of the school included History, Geography, Natural

Science, needle work and embroidery. The girls learnt to make their own jackets,

underclothes and children’s dresses and embroidering cushion covers and table

clothes. Miss. J.G.Chapman taught subjects like hygiene, home nursing, first aid

etc. in the Home Science class and also started a dispensary. The women

missionaries followed a fixed time table for the working of their boarding

schools. The children woke up at day break and retired to bed at nine. They were

69. Ibid., p.99. 70. Ibid., pp.138-144. 71. P.T. Kuruvilla Chennamkary, op.cit., p.135. 72. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.288. 73. P.K. Mathew, Christava Mahilalayam-The Wonder on a Hill Top, Christava Mahilalayam,

Alwaye, 1971, p.12. 74. Ibid. 75. Hester Smith, op.cit., p.68.

72

employed at their needles till noon and at their books in the afternoons. On

Saturday they practiced musical tunes.

The Bible was translated to Malayalam due to the encouragement of

Protestant missionaries. In 1806, Claudius Buchanan visited Marthoma VI, the

head of the Syrian church and he shared his desire to translate the Bible into

Malayalam. He gave him a manuscript of the Bible, written in ‘Estrangelo

Syriac’ script, which was the oldest of the Syriac scripts76. The British

government and missionaries offered their help to this venture. In 1807, the four

gospels were translated to Malayalam by Kayamkulam Philipose Remban77.

The C.M.S. press at Kottayam founded by Benjamin Bailey in 1821 has

the unique honour of being the first Malayalam press in Kerala78. Books became

cheap and within the reach of common people. The missionary contribution to the

language and literature of Travancore consists of translation, compilation of

grammar and dictionaries, journals and publication of books.

Miss. Collins wrote a novel entitled ‘the Slayer’s Slain’ in 1859 and it

was published in 1877. Davis produced a series of literature for the benefit of

Travancore women. Some of her companions wrote very useful papers on

marriage, child care, nutrition and religious education at home. The missionaries

also started many libraries and reading rooms in different places. Natives like

Arch Deacon Koshy wrote ‘Pullelikkunchu’ against caste distinctions and

Nidhirikkal Manikkathanar wrote ‘Sobharaja Vijayam’ and ‘Kripavathi’ in

favour of women education.

When the C.M.S. missionaries got Munroe Island with hundred slaves in

1835, they freed those slaves. In 1847, missionaries presented a memorandum to

Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma to abolish slavery79. In 1850, Rev. George

Mathan started a school for the slaves. Depressed classes were greatly assisted by

76. learnaramaic.blogspot.com/2012/05/estrangelo-syriac _script.html 77. Samuel Varghese and Samuel Nellimukal, Benjamin Bailey Malayalam Achadiyude Pithavu,

(Mal.), Benjamin Bailey Research Centre, Kottayam, 1996, p.87. 78. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., p.133. 79. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.256.

73

the missionaries’80. Thus the missionaries helped to erode old Kerala and created

new attitudes and mind set.

Three ideas which influenced 19th century Kerala society were social

equality, social freedom and social justice which were basically Christian points

of view, presented by Christian missionaries. It was the missionaries who first

raised their voice against slavery and it was they who drew the attention of the

public as well as the authorities to this evil.

As a result of English education and permeation of Western values, social

customs like joint family, matrilineal, Sambandham systems, polygamy,

polyandry, child marriage etc. disappeared and widow remarriage and intercaste

marriage were encouraged.

Education created desire for employment, both in men and women. Many

women were engaged as teachers in schools run by the missionaries and by the

government. Some were engaged in the public department and some in the

political life of the country. The lace industry, the embroidery industry, the

weaving industry, the tile industry and the community school started by the

missionaries provided employment facilities, economic stability and financial

security to many women. Also, the missionaries implanted a new cultured life in

Kerala like a disciplined church, systematic Sunday worship, small prayer

groups, family prayer in morning and evening, Bible reading, cleanliness in

houses, polish in manners, etiquette, culture, art, dressing etc.

The missionaries and missionary wives worked hand in hand and

established a number of girls’ schools, boarding schools, bazaar schools, day

schools, evening schools, vernacular schools, anglo-vernacular schools, caste

girl’s schools, village schools, teacher’s training schools, slave schools,

vocational schools, Sunday schools, kindergarten schools, nursing schools,

seminaries and colleges. Besides, they made house visits, bazaar preaching,

lantern lectures, circulated pamphlets and conducted moral classes in schools.

From Kottayam, girl’s education spread to the nook and corner of Kerala. The

80. C. Kesavan, Jeevitha Samaram, (Mal.), D.C. Books, Kottayam, 2005, p.98.

74

missionary schools produced eminent leaders who in course of time took an

active part in the struggle for responsible government.

Education also helped the women of Kerala to organize and participate in

various political organizations. Hepzibah, one of the women teachers of the

L.M.S. and the first woman graduate from Nagercoil was nominated to the Sree

Moolam Legislative Assembly. In 1933, Sree Moolam Assembly consisted of

seventy male members and two women, of whom Hepzibah was one81.

Besides L.M.S. and C.M.S., other small Protestant missions like ‘the

Salvation Army’, ‘the Brother Mission’, ‘the Lutheran Mission’ etc. worked in

Travancore82. The combined efforts of Mrs. Mary Chapman and Pastor Robert F.

Cook inaugurated the beginning of Pentecostal churches in Travancore83.

Pastor Robert F. Cook started sixty three mission stations and had forty three

missionaries in Travancore84. His important mission fields were Kottarakkara and

Adoor.

Apart from Protestant missionaries, Catholic monks and nuns, both

foreigners and natives, worked for the social and cultural rejuvenation. The

Kerala church did not approve the equality of women even in religious matters.

Their role in the church was only a passive one. But the missionaries created an

atmosphere which supported women’s entry into the religious liberty.

Fr.Augustine Buttlopp, Msgr. Marsilinos Sancta Tresia, Fr. Candidus Korde

Marie, Msgr. Bernardine Baccinelli O.C.D., Msgr. Leonard Mellano O.C.D.,

Fr. Louis Vaippissery, Fr. Zacharias, Fr. Ourelian, Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara

and many others laid the foundations of modern secular education in the Catholic

Church85. Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara and Fr. Leopold Beccaro established the

first indigenous religious congregation of women in India at Koonammavu,

which is now known as C.M.C.86. They also instituted a school, a boarding house,

81. R.J.Hepzi Joy, op.cit., p.202. 82. Koji Kawashima, op.cit., p.55. 83. Vimala Shibu Pallickal, “The Pentecostal Missions”, B. Sobhanan, (ed.), A History of the

Christian Missions in Souh India, Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum, 1996, p.192. 84. Malayala Manorama, 26 January, 2013. 85. John Francis Pallathu, op.cit., pp.104-182. 86. Ibid., p.126.

75

and an orphanage for girls. Through the convent schools, the sisters came into

contact with the girls of Christian and Hindu families and transmitted a positive

energy in them. The main aim of the C.M.C. was the education of girls. The

sisters trained young girls in catechism, prayers, devotion and handicrafts.

Boarding houses for young women for residential study were attached to the

convents. Women who had been capable only of holding washing pots became

efficient through education.

The role and contribution of Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara, as a pioneer in

establishing a religious congregation for women is highly remarkable. It was he

who first visualized a social set up where women would be powerful instruments

in transforming not only the Church but also the society in the Kerala context. In

1872, the first formal school for girls was started by C.M.C. in the convent

premises at Koonammavu. By the end of nineteenth century, C.M.C. convent

schools spread in various parts of Travancore-Cochin. For opening schools, he

started mass mobilization methods. Each housewife of the parish was instructed

to put aside one handful of rice per day and to surrender the savings to the local

church once in a month87. His dream of integral development of women and

society through convent schools and boardings thus became a reality88. He also

started a Sanskrit school at Mannanam and a Pulaya school at Arppookkara.

Establishing schools attached to each parish became part of his education

policy 89.

The St. Joseph’s Girl’s High School at Changanassery under the

management of C.M.C. sisters was the first English medium school for girls in

the Syro-Malabar Church. During the initial stage, an Anglican woman from

Alleppey taught English language and literature in this school while Malayalam

and needle work were handled by a couple from Pallom. Educating women

inorder to ensure their participation in various walks of life was a major aim

87. K.C.Chacko, Blessed Father Kuriakose Elias Chavara, St.Joseph’s Monastery, Mannanam,

1986, p.61. 88. Suma Rose, op.cit., p.164. 89. J.Chirayil C.M.I., “Chavara Achan, Kerala Sabha Samudharakan”, J.S.Thekkunkal C.M.I.,

(ed.), Chavara Achan Kadannu Poya Vazhikal, (Mal.), Vice-Postulator, Cause of Blessed Kuriakose Elias Chavara, Mannanam, 2011, p.28.

76

behind the founding of a number of religious congregations for women.

Prominent among them were Congregation of the Mother of Carmel or C.M.C.,

Congregation of Carmelite Religious of Trivandrum or C.C.R., Franciscan Clarist

Congregation or F.C.C. and Sisters of the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary

or S.V.M90. Sr.Mariam Tresia of Thrissur also started a congregation called

‘Congregation of the Holy Family’.

The newly erected convents became the centres of learning, benevolence

and asceticism which radiated the genuine spirit of love and compassion beyond

the barriers of caste, community, religious variations etc. Convent, school and

family were strung together in harmony. Through education which consisted of

learning, employment and piety, they tried to enhance the position of women in

society.

The educational efforts of these congregations were partly instrumental in

the elimination of social evils such as child marriage, female infanticide, denial

of girl’s education, polyandry and ban on widow remarriage. They have a

significant share in the advancement of women in the Kerala society.

The Syrians started Balikamatom School at Thiruvalla in 1904 and raised

it to an English middle school in 1920 with the help of Mother Edith Neeve, a

C.M.S. missionary, and Miss. Holmes and Miss. Brookesmith from England91.

The influence of modern education upon the political life of Kerala was

very significant. The benefits of development were received by the emerging

middle class, constituting the lower section of the higher castes and higher

section of the lower castes92. Without the missionary interference, the place of

women in Kerala would be different. The newly educated women shed aspects of

the matrilineal culture and patriarchal monogamy. Women may have lost sexual

freedom and the security of a matrilineal joint family but in exchange they often

acquired earning power in respectable salaried employment.

90. Suma Rose, op.cit., pp.166-174. 91. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.312. 92. P.K. Michael Tharakan, “Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, The Case of

19th Century Travancore”, C.D.S. Working Paper, No. 190, Trivandrum, 1984, p.61.

77

If the French Revolution emerged from Voltaire and Rousseau, and if the

Russian Revolution emerged from Marx and Engels, the nineteenth century socio

religious revolutions of Travancore emerged from the missionaries. It was the

Christian missionaries who provided the avarnas “the help from outside” to

demolish caste system93.

A significant development of the late nineteenth century was the

emergence of an English educated class and a reading public, increasing

circulation of newspapers and magazines and functioning of reading clubs and

debating societies94. In such an atmosphere, O.Chandu Menon’s famous work

‘Indulekha’ appeared the scene of Kerala history in the year 1889. It presented

the ardent desire of new generation to reconcile with the newly formed social set

up. Through ‘Indulekha’, he advocated a nuclear family which matched to new

colonial set up95.

Chandu Menon, too, thought in the way of Ram Mohan Roy. This novel

served as an inducing force for socio religious reform movements. The picture of

Suri Namboothiri was so strong and influential which led to the emergence of

Namboothiri reform movements like ‘Yogakshema Sabha’. There is a reference

in the novel about the newly started spinning mill in Kozhikode which shows the

emergence of factory system and industrial capitalism in our country which

finally became another cause for Renaissance. Through ‘Indulekha’, Chandu

Menon also describes the changes which English education brings to Kerala

women’s life96. Raja Ravi Varma’s paintings ‘There Comes Papa’, ‘Malabar

Beauty’, ‘Veena Player’ etc. depicted heroines who boldly faced the world. They

are pictured as those who stand in the threshold of secular and democratic public

sphere which was developing at that time. Close assessments of these pictures

show the alteration of women’s lives from inactive onlookers of social life to

owners of active citizenship.

93. P.S. Velayudhan, S.N.D.P. Yoga Charithram, (Mal.), S.N.D.P. Yogam, Quilon, 1978, p.11. 94. J.Devika, “Imagining Women’s Social Space in Early Modern Keralam”, C.D.S. Working

Paper No. 329, Trivandrum, 2002, p.6. 95. K.N. Ganesh, op.cit., p.310. 96. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.380.

78

The painting ‘There Comes Papa’, which came out in 1893, shows a

young Malayali woman, with a plump baby on her hip, pointing towards an

approaching figure who is out of the frame97. The father is outside the framework

of the picture. The absent, yet approaching Papa signifies the crisis in Nair

matriliny in the late nineteenth century. The fact that Ravi Varma chose to

celebrate conjugal domesticity and the nuclear family at a time when these were

comparatively unknown amongst large sections of the matrilineal population

reveals his growing patrilineal sensibilities. ‘There Comes Papa’ becomes akin to

a clarion call for the end of matriliny98. In that period of transition from

Marumakkathayam to Makkathayam, the mother points her son towards the

transforming society outside.

Old Kerala was a place of borders and limitations - borders on where

particular people might go and limitations on what they might do. Their

costumes, shape of hair, style of ornaments and their names had to publicize who

they were and functioned as caste symbols of their bodies. During the period

from 1905 to 1915, Ezhava women began to add the suffix ‘Amma’ with their

names.But the Nair Headmasters decided not to give admission to Ezhava girls

who come with ‘Amma’ name and this ended in several disputes called ‘Amma

vazhakku’99.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, the privilege of women to

cover their bodies with an upper cloth became an impulsive issue in Kerala. The

social revolution in Kerala began with the Channar Revolt, the first organized

agitation for human rights in Kerala100.

Lower caste women were not allowed to wear anything above the waist or

below the knees. An uncovered torso was a sign of respect to upper castes101.

97. G. Arunima, There Comes Papa: Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in

Kerala, Malabar C. 1850-1940, Orient Longman Private Limited, New Delhi, 2003, p.1. 98. Ibid. 99. C.Kesavan, op.cit., p.69. 100. V. Thankayya and P.K. Tilak, Thekken Thiruvitamkoor Viplavathinte Nadu, (Mal.), D.C.

Books, Kottayam, 1995, p.27. 101. S.Thulaseedharan Assary, Colonialism, Princely States and Struggle for Liberation,

Travancore (1938- 1948), A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2009, p.45.

79

Brahmin women wore blouses and upper clothes. Nair women had to keep bare

torso before Brahmins and royal family members. During the ‘Aratt’ festival of

Sri Padmanabha temple, when the Maharaja went to the beach to perform certain

religious rites twice a year, hundreds of Nair girls with bare breasts went in

procession for a distance of nearly three kilometers carrying lighted lamps102.

Syrian Christians and Muslims wore long sleeved blouses called kuppayam.

Fisher women used coarse clothes covering breasts but leaving the shoulders

bare.

The missionary women such as Mrs. Martha Mault and Mrs. Johanna

Mead stitched a special type of jacket with short hands and urged the converted

women to wear it and a new style of dress code spread among the Christian

converted women, who, hitherto had no right to cover their breasts103. Students of

Nagercoil boarding schools made five hundred jackets and freely supplied some

of them104. Channar Riot started in 1822 at Kalkkulam when the converted

Channar women began to wear jackets and melmundu in the fashion of savarna

women105. Thereafter, non-converted Channar women also began to wear jackets

and melmundu and this led to severe riots between Nairs and Channars. The

second phase of Channar Riot started in 1828 when two Channar women, Yesu

Adiyal and Neethi Adiyal came to Kalkkulam market wearing upper cloth106. The

savarnas tore their jackets and attacked Christian schools.

The court order of 1829 allowed wearing of jackets but prohibited the

wearing of melmundu. In 1858, another riot occurred when one Poothathankutty

and his wife Eshakee became converts and provoked their master Madom Pillay

by wearing costumes similar to that of Madom Pillay’s wife and by calling them

sinners107. Many churches were set to fire at Parassala. In 1859, L.M.S.

102. Joy Gnanadasan, op.cit, p.35. 103. Paul Manavalan, Kerala Samskaravum Christhava Missionarymarum, (Mal.), D.C.Books,

Kottayam, 1990, p.120. 104. Robin Jeffrey, op.cit., p.156. 105. S.Thulaseedharan Assary, op.cit. 106. C. Abhimanyu, Ayyankali, (Mal.), Department of Cultural Publications, Government of

Kerala, Trivandrum, 1990, p.40. 107. P. Shungoonny Menon, A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times, Asian

Educational Services, New Delhi, 1985, p.507.

80

missionaries gave a petition to Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma Maharaja but

got no reply. They petitioned to British government and Madras Governor Sir.

Charles Trevelyan asked explanation to Resident Cullen. The Resident informed

this to Travancore Diwan Madhava Rao and soon the Maharaja issued a

proclamation on 26 July 1859, allowing the wearing of jackets and melmundu to

all Channar women whether a convert or nonconvert108. It was under the pressure

of social reformers and L.M.S. missionaries, that this royal proclamation was

issued abolishing all restrictions in regard to the covering of the upper part by the

Channar women. It was issued with a stipulation that they should not imitate the

dress of upper caste women.

For the first time in the history of Kerala, a community fought bitterly and

earnestly, and succeeded after shedding sweat and blood, in winning the right of

women to dress decently. The upper cloth controversy which continued for thirty

seven years was really only the tip of the iceberg.

The Renaissance period witnessed the rise of so many socio-religious

reformers such as Thykkad Ayya Swamikal, Ayya Vaikunta Swamikal,

Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker, Sree Narayana Guru, Dr. Palpu, Kumaran

Asan, Sahodaran Ayyappan, Ayyankali, Karumban Daivathan, Poikayil Sree

Kumara Gurudevan, Pampady John Joseph, Ayyathan Gopalan, Vellikkara

Chothi, Chakkola Daivatha, Thomas Vadhyar, Subhananda Gurudevan, Tegadi

Kesava Sastri, Paravoor Kesavan Asan, Pandit K.P. Karuppan, Mulavukadu

Krishnathi Asan, Dr.Velukkutty Arayan, K.P.Vallon, V.T.Bhattathirippad,

Muthiringottu Bhavathrathan Namboothiri, Chattampi Swamikal, Sadananda

Swamikal, Brahmananda Sivayogi, Vagbhatanandan, Mannathu Padmanabhan,

Vakkom Abdul Khadir Maulavi, Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara and socio-political

reformers like C.Kesavan, C.V.Kunjiraman, T.K. Madhavan, R. Sankar and

literary figures like Kumaran Asan and Muloor S.Padmanabha Panicker .

For never before or since then had there been the advent of so many great

men in such a short time as during those decades. It was truly like the coming of

108. Samuel Nellimukal, Keralathile Samoohya Parivarthanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.276.

81

spring, the season of regeneration, joy and hope, in the withered garden of India,

filling the land with fine and fragrant flowers109. In Travancore, social reform

movements were started by castes and communities. Social equality was the

precondition for political freedom. Social justice was necessary to enter into the

main stream of political power.The revolutionary centre of Renaissance was

Travancore itself. The fight against Savarna supremacy, casteism, untouchability,

unapproachability, and fight for temple entry centred in Travancore, eventhough

their vibrations were heard in Cochin and Malabar110. The protest movements in

Travancore were termed as social reform movements. All the socio-religious

reform movements originated in Kerala functioned within the operational

structure of caste111.

The period also stormed the princely state of Taravancore with a large

number of agitations such as Channar Riot in 1822-1859, Mukkuthi Riot in 1852,

Malayali Memorial in 1891, Ezhava Memorial in 1896, Bible Dahanam in 1899,

Agrarian riots under Ayyankali in 1907, Kallumala Rebellion in 1912,

Misrabhojanam in 1917, Jati Rakshasa Dahanam in 1917, Vaikom Satyagraha in

1924-1925 and Nivarthana Agitation in 1932. While the Ezhava women fought to

cover their breasts, Namboothiri women fought to uncover their faces.

Ayya Vaikunta Swamikal from South Travancore organized eighteen

lower castes and made an agitation for temple entry. He appointed priests from

lower castes, established temples for lower castes, urged slaves to use turbans and

women to cover their breasts in the fashion of savarnas. He also agitated against

the king and was imprisoned by Swati Thirunal. The organization founded by

Ayya Vaikunta Swamikal was ‘Samatwa Samajam’, where people lived a

community life without any caste distinctions112. He can be called ‘the first

109. P. Parameswaran, Narayana Guru, the Prophet of Renaissance, Suruchi Sahitya, New

Delhi, 1979, p.11. 110. P. Govindappillai, E.M.S. Namboothirippad, (Mal.), National Book Trust India, New Delhi,

2007, p.93. 111. J.W. Gladstone, Protestant Christianity and People’s Movement in Kerala, Seminary

Publications, Trivandrum, 1984, p.308. 112. V. Thankayya, Sri Vaikunta Swamikal Navothana Silpi, (Mal.), Prabhat Book House,

Trivandrum, 2001, p.65.

82

traveller in the path of Renaissance’113. Thykkad Ayyaswamikal or Subbarayar

was a follower of Ayya Vaikunta Swamikal and Guru of Chattampi Swamikal

and Sree Narayana Guru. He organized panthi bhojanam in which several castes

participated.

Kerala Renaissance originally started from the Ezhava caste. Arattupuzha

Velayudha Panicker was a forerunner of Sree Narayana Guru. He established a

temple in his wife’s house Varanappallil at Puthuppally, which later drew the

attention of Sree Narayana Guru who stayed at Varanappallil for his education,

three years after the death of Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker.

Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker also established a Kathakali club,

consecrated a number of temples and forcibly entered Vaikom temple114. Two

legends were often associated with him i.e., when an Ezhava girl was attacked at

Kayamkulam for dressing in savarna attire, he went to Kayamkulam market with

a vessel full of neriyathu and persuaded all low caste women presented there to

wear it and when an Ezhava girl was attacked for wearing gold mukkuthi at

Pandalam, he went to Pandalam market with a vessel full of mukkuthis and

persuaded all low caste women presented there to wear it115.

But the deliverance of the untouchables of Travancore was to come from

one of their own member, a man whose life and work are one of the glories of

Travancore history, Sree Narayana Guru116. It was Sree Narayana Guru’s

‘Aruvippuram Prathishta’ which brought a fundamental change in Kerala’s caste

ridden social set up. As Gangotri originates from Himalayas and becomes Ganga

River, social tremulation of Kerala began from Aruvippuram117.

Sree Narayana Guru advised to give the most important place in the

home, to the wife. To him, virtuous wife brings virtue to the home and the most 113. P. Govindappillai, Kerala Navothanam Oru Marxist Veekshanam, (Mal.), Chintha

Publications, Trivandrum, 2003, p.144. 114. P. Govindappillai, Kerala Navothanam Yuga Santhathikal Yuga Silpikal, (Mal.), Chintha

Publications, Trivandrum, 2010, pp.51-56. 115. Filippo Osella and Caroline Osella, Social Mobility in Kerala, Modernity and Identity in

Conflict, Pluto Press, London, 2000, p.157. 116. Louis Ouwerkerk, No Elephants for the Maharaja, Social and Political Change in

Travancore, 1921-1947, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1994, p.54. 117. P. Govindappillai, Kerala Navothanam Oru Marxist Veekshanam, (Mal.), op.cit., p.158.

83

valuable thing possessed by a householder is a virtuous wife118. The society must

create a genuine environment in which women will be able to enjoy genuine

freedom and equality of opportunity. He called upon mothers to develop such

mental and behavioural traits which are helpful to a healthy and happy life. The

mother is the sole responsible person for intellectual development of the child

until the age of five. He also asked the mothers to realize their roles in families

and pay more attention in bringing up their children119. The responsibility for the

intellectual development of the child rests entirely with the mother. She has to

shoulder this responsibility successfully. The mother has to be dutiful and

responsible. Sree Narayana Guru also asked his followers to educate their

womenfolk.

Sree Narayana Guru absorbed the rationalistic and practical outlook of the

missionaries. He preferred English rather than Sanskrit, rationalism than blind

faith, schools than temples and simple customs than complex ceremonies. In

1903, he founded ‘Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam’ with the assistance

of Dr. Palpu and Kumaran Asan in the model of ‘missions’. He started Sunday

worship in the model of missionaries. Just as missionaries used the Bible, he used

‘Adwaitha philosophy’ as an instrument of social change120. In the model of

missionary activities, Ezhava community came forward to acquire ‘knowledge

through education and strength through organisation’121. The Sree Narayana

Movement created self reliance in all low caste communities. His battle cry was

‘One Caste, One Religion and One God for Man’ 122. He also supported anti-caste

struggles like Vaikom Satyagraha and donated thousand rupees to Vaikom

Satyagraha fund123.

118. M.H.Sastrikal, Gurudeva Krithikal, Sadacharam, Bharya Dharmam, (Mal.), Sivagiri

Matom Publications, Varkala, 2009, p.24. 119. Jerald J.Perreira, Narayana Guru A Social Educator, R.R.Publishers, Varkala, 1988, p.66. 120. Ibid. 121. N. Sam, “Missionarymarude Swadheenatha, Velluvilikalum Prathikaranangalum”,

P.V. Velayudhan Pillai, (ed.), Navothana Samskaram Keralathil, (Mal.), I.C.K.S., Trivandrum, 1998, p.83.

122. K.Vivekanandan, Sree Narayana Darsanavum Manava Munnettavum, (Mal.), K.Vivekanandan, Kottayam, 1986, p.103.

123. S.Raimon, (ed.), Selected Documents on Vaikom Satyagraha, Kerala State Archives Department, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 2006, p.35.

84

Dr. Palpu was a social revolutionary from the Ezhava caste. He was one

of the signatories of the Malayali Memorial of 1891. He was the brain behind the

Ezhava Memorial of 1896 which requested the Maharaja to confer on the

Ezhavas the same rights and privileges enjoyed by Ezhava converts to

Christianity. He published at his own cost, the book ‘Treatment of Thiyyas in

Travancore’124. He organized agricultural and industrial exhibition in Kollam. He

also suggested a woman’s meeting should be held at every annual conference of

S.N.D.P. The first women’s meeting was held in 1904 itself under the

presidentship of Dr. Palpu’s mother Mathapperumal and in that meeting, Palpu’s

wife P.K.Bhagawathi made a speech125. Dr. Palpu organized three institutions for

the upliftment of women viz., ‘Dharma Sodaree Madam’, ‘Dharma Deepa

Madam’ and ‘Dharma Nidhi’. Among them ‘Dharma Sodaree Madam’ was

meant for women education126 . But his ideas remained unfulfilled.

Another leader of the S.N.D.P. was Kumaran Asan, its first General

Secretary and the well known poet. He was the editor of ‘Vivekodayam’, the

mouthpiece of S.N.D.P. The magazine represented the interests of Ezhava

community and earned the sobriquet ‘Ezhava Gazette’127. Asan also spread his

ideas of social equality through his poems like ‘Veenapoovu’, ‘Nalini’, ‘Leela’,

‘Prarodanam’, ‘Duravastha’ etc.

It was Sahodaran Ayyappan who developed a secular ideology “No caste,

no religion, no God, no class” which combined aspects of Buddhism, the

achievements of science and socialism. He was against caste system and

organized ‘Sahodara Sangham’, which arranged programmes like

Misrabhojanam and ‘Jati Rakshasa Dahanam’ and he was often called ‘Pulayan

Ayyappan’128.

Along with the ‘Sahodara Sangham’, a women’s wing called ‘Stree

Samajam’ was also organized, at a time when Malayalis had not even thought 124. P.S.Velayudhan, op.cit., p.25. 125. Ibid., p.105. 126. P.Vinayachandran, Doctor Palpuvinte Katha, (Mal.), P.Vinayachandran, Kottayam, 2002,

p.171. 127. P.S. Velayudhan, op.cit., p.113. 128. M.K. Sanoo, Sahodaran K. Ayyappan, (Mal.), D.C. Books, Kottayam, 1989, p.67.

85

about an organization for women129. He also organized ‘Adi Vypin Thozhilali

Sangham’, one of the earliest Trade Unions in Kerala.

Sahodaran Ayyappan propagated egalitarian and rationalist ideology and

his wife Parvathi Ayyappan set up institutions like ‘Sree Narayana Sevika

Samajam’ to help destitute women or orphans130. ‘Sree Narayana Vidyarthi

Sadanam’, a hostel for girls from the isolated and shunned classes, but later

thrown open to all, was also started by the time.

Muloor S. Padmanabha Panicker of Elavumthitta challenged the

monopoly of savarnas in literature. His poem ‘Pulavrithangal’ reveals that he

was a silent fighter against caste131. Satyavrata Swamikal or Ayyappan Pillai of

Vezhapra, Changanassery, also became a disciple of Sree Narayana Guru.

C. Kesavan, C.V. Kunjuraman and T.K. Madhavan were other progressive

leaders of the Ezhavas.

The role of Ezhavas was quite central in the social emancipation

movement. Undoubtedly, the most widespread mass movement that Travancore

had known was the social reform movement among the Ezhavas132. S.N.D.P.

worked for women education, and against social evils, casteism and

untouchability. ‘Atmavidya Sangham’, under the leadership of Aryabhata Swami,

a disciple of Vagbhatananda can be called ‘Avarna Bhakti Movement’133. It

attracted many women like K. Devayani, Muthukulam Parvathi Amma and

Gomati Dev. Many women social workers like Mannanthara Parvathi Amma,

Sister Thapaswini, Kartyayani Amma and many others came forward to work in

distant places.The Renaissance among the Ezhavas slowly penetrated among the

lower classes and their most important leader was Ayyankali. Ayyankali

129. http://www.cherai.com 130. M.K. Sanoo, Parvathy Amma Asaranarude Amma, (Mal.), Sri Narayana Sevika Samajam,

Alwaye, 2000, pp.61-63. 131. G. Krishnan Nadar, Downtrodden Movement in Kerala, G. Krishnan Nadar, Trivandrum,

2007, p.119. 132. Meera Velayudhan, “Reform, Law and Gendered Identity” , M.A. Oommen, (ed.),

Rethinking Development-Kerala’s Development Experience, Vol. I, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1991, p.61.

133. K.Devayani, Chorayum Kanneerum Nananja Vazhikal, (Mal.), Samatha, Thrissur, 2010, p.113.

86

organized Pulaya revolts for attaining civic rights like right to walk and right to

education. In 1893, he travelled through a Villuvandi through the streets wearing

white clothes and asserted his right to travel like the savarnas134. When the

savarnas set fire to a Pulaya school at Venganoor in 1907, Ayyankali organized

agricultural strike. In 1914, when he sought admission for a Pulaya girl Panchami

in Uroottambalam School near Neyyattinkara, the savarnas set fire to the

school135. This resulted in a revolt called ‘Thonnooramandu Lahala’ as it

happened in 1090 M.E. Pulaya women wore bunches and strings of beads around

their neck and hanging on the breast136. As per Ayyankali’s advice, Pulaya

women abandoned their traditional kallumalas and soiled clothes and began to

wear hygienic clothes and modern ornaments. Whenever the savarnas attacked

them, the women counter attacked with sickles and other weapons. In 1905 under

Ayyankali’s leadership, a combined meeting of Pulayas and Nairs was organized

at Kollam.Changanassery Parameswaran Pillai presided over the meeting and

thousands of Pulaya women threw away their kallumalas137. Kumaran Asan

wrote about ‘Kallumala Rebellion’ in Vivekodayam that “riot itself is a social

reformer”138.

Poikayil Sri Kumara Gurudevan or Poikayil Yohannan was another social

reformer of the period. He was born as the son of a converted Christian at

Eraviperoor. Yohannan understood the cruelty of casteism in churches. The

church existed as a whitewashed tomb inclusive of all evils in the society139. In

1899, he burnt the Bible on the banks of river Pampa as a protest against casteism

which was prevailing in Christian community and this event was known as ‘Bible

Dahanam’.At Vakathanam also, Poikayil Yohannan burned the Bible and a

violent revolt followed. This was called ‘Vakathanam Lahala’. Women like

134. M.Nisar and Meena Kandasamy, Ayyankali A Dalit Leader of Organic Protest, Other

Books, Calicut, 2007, pp.66-67. 135. Vivekodayam magazine, Book- 11, Issue 8, Vrischikam, 1090 M.E. 136. Samuel Mateer, op.cit., p.40. 137. P. Bhaskaranunni, Keralam Erupatham Nootandinte Arambhathil, (Mal.), Kerala Sahitya

Academy, Thrissur, 2005, p.226. 138. P. Bhaskaranunni, Kollathinte Charithram, (Mal.), Kollam Public Library and Research

Centre, Kollam, 1994, p.145. 139. Adiyardeepam magazine, Vol.1, No.9, 1986.

87

Anjilimoottil Martha and Mukkalil Anna counter attacked the goondas.They

dressed Poikayil Yohannan in a woman’s attire and rescued him140. In an

encounter between Poikayil Yohannan and savarnas at Vettiyad in 1908, a

depressed class woman called Aley sacrificed her life as a martyr for a noble

cause141.

Poikayil Yohannan left the church and formed a separate organization

called ‘Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha’ or P.R.D.S. and he came to be known

as Poikayil Sri Kumara Gurudevan. At a time when equality, liberty and political

life of women were not matters of issue, P.R.D.S. took the issue of gender

equality as an important topic of discussion142. Poikayil Yohannan gave

importance to equality for women. He gave importance to women’s issues in his

speeches and songs143. After his death, his wife Janamma became the leader of

P.R.D.S. and was known as Ammachi 144.

Paravoor Kesavanasan used the columns of his newspaper ‘Sujana

nandini’to bring to light, the pitiable condition of the Dalits145. Kumaran Asan

wrote his early poems in this paper under the pen name ‘Kayikkara

N.Kumaran’146.Chakola Daivatha was the General Secretary of ‘Sadhu Jana

Paripalana Sangham’ and was a member of Sree Moolam Praja Sabha147.

Pampady John Joseph organized ‘Cheramar Mahajana Sabha’ and a magazine

‘Sadhujana Dootan’ to fight for the privileges of pulayas148.

140. M. R. Renukumar, Poikayil Yohannan, (Mal.), Director, Kerala State Institute of Children’s

Literature, Trivandrum, 2010, pp.61-65. 141. V.Satish, “Sri Kumara Guru, a Trail-Blazer”, Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol.37,

Department of History, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, March-December, 2010, p.23. 142. P. Govindappillai, Kerala Navothanam Oru Marxist Veekshanam, (Mal.), op.cit., pp.207-

208. 143. Anilkumar A.V., Yiremyavu Adimayude Jeevitham, (Mal.), Mathrubhoomi Books,

Kozhikode, 2004, p.47. 144. M.R. Renu Kumar, op.cit., p.132. 145. G.Krishnan Nadar, Downtrodden Movement in Kerala,G.Krishnan Nadar,Trivandrum,2007,

p.109. 146. M.Satyaprakasam, Sarasakavi Muloor S.Padmanabha Panicker, (Mal.), Department of

Cultural Publications, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1988, p 210. 147. G.Krishnan Nadar, op.cit., pp.115-116. 148. Ibid., p.116.

88

Subhananda Gurudevan of Chengannur was a Paraya and he founded

‘Atma Bodhodaya Sangham’ 149. In 1926, with the help of some upper caste

men, he made arrangements for English education of depressed class girls at

Kollam150. In 1943, he started ‘Dharma Pradayini Weaving School’ at

Kottarkkavu and gave free training to girls151. Tegadi Kesava Sastri from

Aranmula was one of the founder members of ‘Pulaya Maha Sabha’. He passed

‘Sanskrit Sastri’ examination from Alwaye Sanskrit School established by Sree

Narayana Guru. He started a weekly called ‘Karya Darshi’ and wrote a collection

of poems called ‘Bhagawat Doot’. He started several night schools and

constructed housing colonies for Dalits at Trivandrum152.

Karumban Daivathan of Edayaranmula organized ‘Hindu Pulaya

Samajam’ and also put forward the idea of Dalit colony153. Other lowcaste

leaders of the period included Vellikkara Chothi, Charathan Solomon, Visakhan

Thevan, Kombadi Aninchan, Thomas Vadhyar, Gopaladasan, Thiruvarppu

Kuttan and Seethankan154. Pandit K.P.Karuppan founded many organizations for

the upliftment of Arayas in Cochin.

Infact the fight against caste inequalities and untouchability acquired a

wider dimension with the Vaikom Satyagraha from 1924 to 1925. It was with the

Vaikom Satyagraha that the aspects of social reform movement and the national

movement joined, ushering a new phase in women’s participation in struggles.

Large scale participation of women was witnessed for the first time during

the Vaikom Satyagraha. Women kept apart pidiyari every day. Once in a month

they gathered rice from all houses and sent to Vaikom Satyagraha Camp155. When

149. G.Gopi Krishnan, “Sri Subhananda Gurudevan, A Great Socio Religious Reformer”,

South Indian History Congress Proceedings, Vol.22, South Indian History Congress, Trivandrum, 2002, p.179.

150. Ibid., p.180. 151. Ibid., p.181. 152. Swapna Samel, Dalit Movement in South India, (1857-1950), Serials Publications, Delhi,

2004, p.424. 153. P.Govindappillai, Kerala Navothanam, Yuga Santhathikal, Yuga Silpikal, (Mal.), op.cit.,

pp.118-120. 154. M.R. Renu Kumar, op.cit., pp.12-13. 155. Puthuppally Raghavan, Viplava Smaranakal (Mal.), Vol.1, D.C. Books, Kottayam, 1992,

p.56.

89

the Akalis came and took charge of the kitchen, the rice was sold and the cash

was given to Satyagraha Committee Treasurer Alumoottil Govindan Channar156.

Panavalli Krishnan Vaidyan wrote certain Vaikom Satyagraha songs and women

of Puthupally area used to sing these songs as njattupattu157.

The Suchindram Satyagraha immediately followed the Vaikom

Satyagraha.The temple roads were used by savarnas only.There was a girls’

school near the temple and it was unreachable to avarna girls.A Satyagraha was

started under the guidance of reformers like Dr. M. E. Naidu158. Volunteers

suffered the trouble of brutal measures.The temple was finally opened to all with

the historic Temple Entry Proclamation of 12 November, 1936.

In the Namboothiri community, ‘Namboothiri Yogakshema Sabha’ was

formed in 1908 at Alwaye under the leadership of Kuroor Unni

Namboothirippad159. The motto of the Sabha was “Make Namboothiri a Human

Being”160. V.T.Bhattathirippad, the Namboothiri reformer, earnestly worked all

through his life for English education, swajathee vivaham, industrialization etc.

and against untouchability, Jenmi system, Sambandham, ghosha system,

polygamy etc. In 1933, he made a proclamation, “set fire to temples”161.

Greater was the crash made on the Namboothiris especially womenfolk by

V.T. Bhattathirippad through his drama ‘Adukkalayil Ninnu Arangathekku’ i.e.,

‘From kitchen to stage’. Marriage reform among Namboothiris was the central

theme of the drama and it was the first social drama in Kerala162.The drama

provided an opportunity to Namboothiris to realize the cruelty of social evils like

aged marriage, illiteracy etc. It also created a strong hatred for child and aged

marriage and instilled self-confidence among women to affirm their right in 156. Ibid., pp.56-57. 157. Ibid. 158. N.Unnikrishnan, T.K.Madhavanum Thiruvithamkoorinte Samoohya Rashtreeya

Pravarthanavum, (Mal.), Lakshmi Publications, Kollam, 2005, p.111. 159. I.V.Babu, Keraleeya Navothanavum Namboothirimarum, (Mal.), Sahitya Pravarthaka

Co-operative Society, Kottayam, 2001, p.102. 160. A.Sreedhara Menon, Kerala and Freedom Struggle, D.C.Books, Kottayam, 1997, p.61. 161. Velayudhan Panickassery, Ayyankali Muthal V.T.Vare, (Mal.), Current Books, Kottayam,

2003, pp.105-106. 162. M.R. Manmathan, “Theatre as an Apparatus of Reform: Reflection on Adukkalayil Ninnu

Arangathekku”, Journal of the Insitute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol.1, No.2, IRISH, Kannur, 2009, pp.230-233.

90

marriage. The impact of the drama on the Namboothiri community especially on

their womenfolk was immeasurable. The transformation that this distinct drama

brought about in the minds of the Namboothiri women in so short a period was

exciting. V.T. Bhattathirippad started a newspaper called ‘Pasupatham’ and

started a centre for community life, by name, ‘Udbuddha Keralam’163.

For propagating widow remarriage and intercaste marriage also, V.T.

Bhattathirippad took the initiative. He gave his sister-in-law, Uma Antarjanam, a

widow, to M.R. Bhattathirippad. This was the first known widow remarriage in

the Namboothiri community164. He also gave his sister Parvathi to a Nair,

Raghavappanicker165. He and his friends publicly conducted ‘Poonool Dahanam’

i.e., burning the sacred thread166. Picketing against ‘Adivedanam’ i.e., old man

marrying young girls, was conducted at different places under the leadership of

V.T. Bhattathirippad.The condition of Namboothiri women was more dreadful.

English education was prohibited to them. After getting puberty, when they had

to go outside, they were concealed from the public gaze by marakkuda and

ghosha and were made outcastes for silly matters. Namboothiri households were

filled with age-old virgins, orphaned widows and co-wives.

Many Namboothiri women such as Arya Pallom, Parvathi

Nenminimangalam, Devaki Warrier, Devaki Nilayangode, Sridevi, Priyadatta

Kallatt, Mrs.Manazhi, Olappamanna Uma Antarjanam, Devaki Narikkattiri,

Lalitambika Antarjanam and many others actively worked for reforming

Namboothiri society. They worked for creating job opportunities and economic

self reliance to Namboothiri women. Parvathi Nenminimangalam, Devaki

Nilayangode and Olappamanna Uma Antarjanam conducted a ‘Bodhavalkkarana

Yatra’ from Malappuram to Kottayam167.

163. Velayudhan Panickassery, op.cit., pp.106-107. 164. Ibid., pp.102-103. 165. V.T.Bhattathirippad, “Misra Vivaha Prasthanathinu Oru Mukhavura”, Sreekumar

A.V., (ed.), V.T., (Mal.), V.T.Centenary Celebration Committee, Thrithala, 1997, p.109. 166. Velayudhan Panickassery, op.cit., p.95. 167. Devaki Nilayangode, Nashtabodhangalilllathe Oru Antarjanathinte Atmakatha, (Mal.),

Current Books, Thrissur, 2003, p.60.

91

Lalitambika Antarjanam was amongst the earliest to break the shackles of

orthodoxy among the Namboothiris. She convened the first meeting of the

Namboothiri women in her house, before she came out on the public platform to

campaign.She wrote a drama called ‘Punarjanmam’ which was renamed

‘Savitrikkutty’ on the theme of Namboothiri widow remarriage and it was staged

on the annual meeting of ‘Namboothiri Yogakshema Sabha’ at Harippad168.

Efforts were also made to change the mode of dress and ornaments of the

Namboothiri females. The old system of enlarged earbores changed slowly.

Instead, young girls began to use studs. They also started wearing blouses.

Formerly, everybody, whether married or unmarried, young or old, would be only

half clad. Another progressive step taken by the community was discarding the

age long ghosha by women.

Mrs. Manazhi was the first antarjanam who discarded ghosha169. The

example was followed by Arya Pallom, Mrs. V.T. Bhattathirippad and others.

While the twenty second annual meeting of the Sabha witnessed only one

Namboothiri woman discarding ghosha, its silver jubilee celebartion saw the

presence of more than seventy five women in modern dress. When ‘Nair

sammelanam’ at Mavelikkara gave a great welcome to those antarjanams who

discarded ghosha and marakkuda, a number of Namboothiri women boldly

attended this meeting and they were received and were seated on the stage170. The

meeting was presided over by Kottoor Bhageerathi Amma and a large crowd

assembled there to see the daring antarjanams.

As a result of the efforts of the reformers, Namboothiri girls began to seek

admission in the ‘Namboothiri Vidyalayam’ in 1930. The government also gave

permission to open a ‘Balika Vidyalayam’ at Thalappilli. Many Namboothiri girls

volunteered to go to schools.Some antarjanams put forward the idea of starting

168. Lalithambika Antarjanam, Atmakathakkoramukham, (Mal.), Current Books, Thrissur, 1991,

p.74. 169. P.V.Ramankutty, “Smrithi Paramparya Prabhavavum Prathirodhavum, Keraleeya Brahmana

Jeevithathil”, V.J.Varghese and N.Vijayamohanan Pillai, (eds.), Anjooru Varshathe Keralam Chila Arivadayalangal, (Mal.), Association for Comparative Studies, Changanassery, 1999, p.109.

170. Lalithambika Antarjanam, op.cit., pp.70-71.

92

‘Antarjana Samajam’ in a meeting held in the house of Parvathi

Nenminimangalam171.

‘Namboothiri Yogakshema Sabha’, ‘Antarjana Samajam’ etc. discussed

important issues like women education, women employment, widow remarriage,

abolition of polygamy etc. which led to many positive results.The daily routine of

women within Illams was traditionally a highly regimented series of ritualistic

observances. This was partially or fully replaced by a new routine that stressed

domestic management, child care, entertainment of guests etc. Reformers had the

insight that women resurgence is possible only through economic freedom and

this resulted in the establishment of a ‘Thozhil kendram’ at Lakkidi. A drama

called ‘Thozhil Kendrathilekku’ was also enacted by ‘Antarjana Samajam’ in

1948. This was the first Malayalam drama written, directed and enacted by

women172.

Chattampi Swamikal was a Nair Sanyasin and reformer. He raised his

voice against caste system and observance of irrational social practices among

Nairs173. He established a good rapport with Sree Narayana Guru and together

they worked for Hindu religious reform. He created an atmosphere of spiritual

renaissance and social resurgence in Nair community. He wrote a large number

of books, attacked caste system and discarded the superiority of Brahmins.

Mannathu Padmanabhan, Pattom Thanu Pillai, C.V.Raman Pillai,

‘Samudayothejakan’ C.Krishna Pillai, Changanassery Parameswaran Pillai,

E.V. Krishna Pillai and many others gave leadership to Nair reform movements.

‘Samoohika Parishkarana Sangham’ was formed in 1899, ‘Keraleeya Nair

Samajam’ was formed in 1907, ‘Nair Bhritya Jana Sangham’ was formed in

1914, and ‘Nair Service Society’was formed in 1915.The ‘Nair Service Society’

worked against casteism inside the Nair Society, Marumakkathayam, social

customs like Kettukalyanam, Thirandukuli, Pulikudi, luxurious festivals,

untouchability etc.

171. Unni Namboothiri weekly, Book No.1, Issue 2, Edavam, 1122 M.E. 172. Devaki Nilayangode, op.cit., p.62. 173. A.Sreedhara Menon, Kerala and Freedom Struggle, op.cit., p.62.

93

Mannathu Padmanabhan was a powerful Nair crusader who became

almost a legendary figure. He worked for the legal recognition of Patriliny and

abolition of sub-caste distinction among the Nairs174. He established schools at

Perunnai, Karukachal, Prakkulam, Karuvatta etc. Kainikkara Govindappilla,

another Nair reformer started a ‘Vidya sala’ at Perunnai and its first girl student

was his daughter Panki Amma175. She then joined St.Joseph’s convent,

Changanassery and became the first woman in Changanassery who got English

education176.

Chittedathu Sankuppillai was a propagandist of Gandhian ideology in

Central Travancore. He lived in Sabarmati asram for three months. He conducted

panthibhojanam in his house. While participating in the Vaikom Satyagraha, he

was brutally tortured by the goondas, and died after a few months. He was the

first political martyr of Kerala177. Agamanandaji or Krishnan Nambiathiri of

Chavara established ‘Adwaithasram’, Kalady and worked for Harijan uplift and

eradication of caste barriers178. Brahmananda Sivayogi or Karatt Govinda Menon

was the author of ‘Stree Vidya Poshini’ in 1899 which advocated women

education179.

The Muslims of Travancore were a relatively small and backward

community, their women were in purdah, their standard of education was low,

but they too began to work for social reform and promotion of English education.

Their great reformer was Vakkom Abdul Khadir Maulavi who founded the

‘Travancore Muslim Mahajana Sabha’, on the same model as S.N.D.P. Yogam

and the Nair Service society180. He spread the message of social development

among his brethren through their own language and also contributed to the cause 174. Robin Jeffrey, Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became a Model, Oxford

University Press, New Delhi, 1992, p.41. 175. Vellankulathu Karunakaran Nair, Mannathu Padmanabhan Jeevacharitham, (Mal.),

Vellankulathu Karunakaran Nair, Kottayam, 1992, p.25. 176. Kalathil Velayudhan Nair, Ente Sanchara Pathangal, (Mal.), SPCS, Kottayam, 1978, p.19. 177. Thelliyoor Gopalakrishanan, Chittedathu Sankuppillai, Adya Rashtreeya Raktha Sakshiyude

Katha, Current Books, Kottayam, (Mal.), 2007, p.154. 178. A.Sreedhara Menon, Kerala and Freedom Struggle, op.cit., p.57. 179. Pavanan, Brahmananda Sivayogi, (Mal.), Department of Cultural Publications,

Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1997, pp.26-28. 180. P. Govindappillai, Mathacharyanmar, Matha Nishedhikal, (Mal.), Chintha Publications,

Trivandrum, 2009, p.48.

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of women. He edited a journal ‘Muslim’ and started a newspaper

‘Swadeshabhimani’. Sayed Sana Ulla Makthi Thangal, Chalilakathu

Kunjahammad Haji, Sheik Muhammad Hamadani Thangal and many others

worked for equality of women, women education etc. and against blind belief

among Muslims.

Christian social reformers like Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara and

Palakkunath Abraham Malpan also contributed to the development of education,

enrichment of literature and upliftment of the marginalized. Fr. Kuriakose Elias

Chavara started a Sanskrit school and a printing press at Mannanam in 1846, a

destitute home at Kainakary in 1869 and spread gospel to the dalits181. He was the

founder of C.M.I. order and was also the author of a large number of books.

Palakkunnathu Abraham Malpan also fought against the age-old social

and ritualistic evils inside the Syrian church. He broke the image of ‘muthappan’

in Maramon church and abolished the festival to destroy idolatrous veneration.

He also conducted Holy Qurbana for the first time in Malayalam in Maramon

church182.With the help of Colonel Munro, Pulikkottil Ittoop Remban started a

Padithaveedu, also known as ‘Kottayam College’ on the banks of river

Meenachil at Kottayam in 1812 which later developed into the C.M.S. College183.

Syriac, Theology and English were taught in this college. Kayamkulam Philipose

Remban enriched Malayalam literature through his ‘Remban Bible’184. Pulikkottil

Joseph Mar Dionysius II was also a reformer guided by humanistic principles.

Mar Gregorios of Parumala gave importance for the freedom of dalits,

need of English education, and the significance of spiritual revival. He asked his

people to create belief in God among the lower castes, to give knowledge to

them, to spread Gospel among them, to baptize them and welcome them to the

181. Ibid., pp.20-32. 182. T.P.Abraham, Naveekaranam Thudakkavum Thudarchayum (Mal.), Manganam Press,

Kottayam, 1985, p.5. 183. Samuel Chandanappally, Malankara Sabha Pithakkanmar, (Mal), Ceedees Books,

Chandanappally, 1990, p.116. 184. Samuel Chandanappally, Kayamkulam Philipose Remban Pradhama Bible Vivarthakan,

(Mal), Ceedees Books, Chandanappally, 1997, p.11.

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community, to construct separate churches and schools to the lower castes, to

start English schools etc.

After his return from Jerusalem, he made a historical speech in the

Parumala church. In this speech he shared a number of revolutionary ideas such

as Harijan uplift, English education etc. to his people185. Dalit students were

admitted in the schools opened by him. Many churches were built for dalits in

Chennithala, Puthupally, Mallappally and Kallunkathara. He was the founder of

many English schools viz., St.Thomas School, Mulamthuruthy, Mar Ignatius

School and St.Mary’s School, Kunnamkulam, M.G.High School, Thumpamon

and M.G.M. School, Thiruvalla186. He tried to start an English school at

Kottarakkara but could not complete his work. He also served as treasurer of

building committee of Government Girls’High School, Thiruvalla187.

Bishop Patrose Mar Osthathios was a social reformer and supporter of

freedom movement. He was a native of Thrippoonithura and his early name was

Mookkancheril M.P.Peter B.A.L.T. He passed matriculation with rank and served

as a teacher in various schools. He had great sympathy towards lower castes, and

in 17 March 1923, published an article “Theendalum Thodeelum” in Malayala

Manorama, attacking the caste system188.

On 31 July 1924, an open letter was published in Manorama to the Diwan

of Cochin favouring the education of the lowcastes and he requested the Diwan

not to collect fees from the Pulayas who were studying in different schools of

Cochin. During the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924, he published many articles in

newspapers favouring the Satyagraha. He made a speech at Vaikom

‘Manalppuram’ and this event was reported in ‘Swarajya’ newspaper from

Madras, on 30 April 1924, under the heading, ‘Rev.Peter’s Message’.

185. Jacob Kurien, “Divya Charitham”, (Mal.), Jacob Kurien, (ed.), Parumala Smrithi,

Malankara Sabha Masika Publications, Kottayam, 2002, p.55. 186. Jose Parakkadavil, “Vidyabhyasa Samoohika Rangangalile Agragami”, (Mal.), Jacob

Kurien (ed.), Parumala Smrithi, ibid., pp.268-270. 187. Ibid., p.269. 188. Samuel Chandanappally, Sneha Yatrikante Atmarekha, (Mal.), Ceedees Books,

Chandanappally, 1995, p.19.

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In 1930, Diwan Sir T.Vijaya Raghavachari appointed deacon M.P.Peter as

the special officer for the uplift of the Harijans. He supported admission of low

caste children to government schools. For the uplift of the lower castes, he started

an organization called “Sleeba Dasa Samooham” i.e., Servants of the Cross, a

native missionary society in 1924189. They visited Pulaya homes with the New

Testament, lantern, kaithalam and chitrachurul donated by the American Mission

and explained the biography and message of Christ.

They taught them the greatness of education and hygiene and the bad

effects of drunkenness. They attracted them towards the Church and Sunday

school, baptized them, admitted them in schools, and gave medicine whenever

necessary. Even if there were rain or wind, they didn’t retire from their work.

This movement still exists in the church and continues the work of complete

liberation of the dalits.

With the beginning of twentieth century, so many Christian poets like

Mahakavi K.V. Simon, Kattakkayam Cherian Mappilai, Prof. P.C. Devasia,

Puthencavu Mathan Tharakan, Edayaranmula K.M.Varghese and many others

used Biblical stories as instruments of social reforms through their poems.

In 1929, Rao Sahib O.M.Cherian, C.P.Tharakan, K.V.Simon, A.M.Varkey,

P.K.Kocheeppan Tharakan, ‘Chitramezhuthu’ K.M.Varghese, P.Jacob Kurien

and others organised ‘Kerala Chraisthava Sevaka Samithi’ in 1930 with its office

at Chengannoor.

Other organizations were ‘Chraisthava Mahajana Sabha’ organized by

Kandathil Varghese Mappilai, Kunnukuzhiyil Kuruvilla Engineer and others and

‘Nasrani Jathyaikya Sangham’ organized by Kandathil Varghese Mappilai and

Nidheerickal Manikkathanar.

Kandathil Varghese Mappilai organized ‘Bhashaposhini Sabha’ and

‘Malayala Manorama Company’ in 1888 and also started a magazine

189. Ibid., pp.27-28.

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‘Bhashaposhini’ for promoting literary activities in Malayalam. ‘Malayala

Manorama’ newspaper started its publication in 1890190.

Many other social reformers such as Vedabandhu, Vagbhatananda,

Agamananda Swami and Sadananda Swami and rationalists like Rama Varma

Thampan, M.C.Joseph, Kuttippuzha Krishna Pillai and ‘Swatantrasamudayam’

Madhavan also worked for the uplift of society as a whole.

Renaissance Movement didn’t fail but it was not completed. The factors

which led to the social change in Kerala during the Renaissance period can be

summed up as:

• Missionaries planted right consciousness among avarnas.

• Science and rationalism developed against blind faith, customs and

traditions.

• Educational elite emerged in every community from top to bottom. The

religious and communal basis of education came to an end. The ideas of

individual liberty, equal opportunities, human fraternity etc. began to be

circulated throughout the Kerala society.

• Rulers understood the winds of changes.

• Social reformers and movements gave force to social change.

• Popular revolts precipitated social change.

• Agricultural revolts created the idea “farm lands for farmers”.

• Due to the emergence of industries, trade, plantations etc., the jati-based-

occupational divisions came to an end. Economic supremacy inspite of

caste supremacy began to develop in society. Coinage system came into

being in both the fields of labour and production.

• Education created social change and social mobility and increased women

participation in social life. From 1930 onwards women began to

190. Ibid., pp.94-95.

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participate freely in political activities, Freedom Movement and Trade

Union movements.

• Nineteenth century Renaissance was also the starting point of Indian

women’s liberation struggles. The age-old concepts of ideal woman began

to change in all communities. Status of women came to be considered

integral to measure the culture of every community.